PROVINCIAL ARCHIVES OF ALBERTA h- Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2015 https://archive.org/details/lessonsinenglish00wels_0 PROF. A. H. WELSH’S WORKS LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. “It is, as to method, arrangement, and matter, a distinct advance beyond anything heretofore published. No book that I have seen is so well adapted to interest the student in the study of ‘grammar,’ to give him an intelligent knowledge of the subject, and to intro- duce and stimulate him to the further s\udy of the English language.” — From N. Butler, Jr., Prof, of Latin, University of Illinois, and late Prof, of English, University of Chicago. ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH. “It is giving great satisfaction.” — H. W. Johnson, Prof, in Illinois College. “At a regular meeting of the Board of Education of this city, held August 15, 1887, ‘ Welsh’s Essentials of English ’ was adopted in our High Schools.” — L. W. Day, Supt. of Public Instruction, Cleveland, Ohio. “It did more to awaken interest in English with a large class under my charge last fall than any other text I have ever used.” — M. D. Hornbeck, Priti. of Wesleyan Seminary, Danville, III. “ I have a class of twenty just completing ‘ Welsh’s Essentials of English,’ and consider it the most satisfactory and successful class of any in my experience as a teacher.” — W. H. Masters, Prof, of English, Texas Wesleyan College. COMPLETE RHETORIC. “ ‘ Welsh’s Rhetoric’ is the best book we have ever used. It meets a long-felt want.” — M. Louise Jones, Supt. of Schools, Charlotte, Mich. “ ‘ Welsh’s Rhetoric ’ and ‘ Essentials of English ’ have been used in our .schools the past year with delight, and with great success. ’’^ — ■ Miss M. a. Brigham, Teacher in Brooklyn Heights Seminary, N. Y. “Allow me to express to you the gratification that I daily experience in the use of the works comprising Wel.sh’s English Course. So far as my knowledge extends there is nothing else quite equal to them.” — Miss C. J. Brown, Prin. of Reading Seminary, Pa. ENGLISH MASTERPIECE COURSE. A book for private study , for literary clubs, for the class-room, and for libraries of reference. “The work embodies an excellent idea well carried out. It fills admirably a lack that I have long felt in our English literature course. I expect to introduce the book next winter.” — Wm. A. I Houghton, Prof, of English Literature, University of the City of I Ne7v York. LESSONS IN English Ghammah By ALEEED H. WELSH {Ohio State University) AUTHOR OR DEVELOPMENT OE ENGLISH LITERATURE AND LANGUAGE, ENGLISH MASTERPIECE COURSE, ESSENTIALS OP ENGLISH, COMPLETE RHETORIC, MAN AND HIS RELATIONS, FIRST LESSONS IN ENGLISH. Between a mind of rules and a mind of principles there exists a difference such as that between a confused heap of materials and the same materials organized into a complete whole.— Spencer SILVER, BURDETT & CO., PUBLISHERS, New York . . . BOSTON . . . Chicago. Copyright, 1887, By JOHN C. BUCKEEE & COMPANY. PeB39 OB KNIGHT & LEONARD CO. [ LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA TO Mt Friend and Instructor, PROFESSOR JOHN WILLIAMS WHITE, OF HAEVAED UNI'SSEESITY, IN PLEASANT RECOLLECTION OF THE FRUITFUL HOURS WE HAVE SPENT TOGETHER IN THE SPHERE OF LANGUAGE-STUDY. PEEFAOE. HE design of this hook is a thoroughly practical one. The author believes that he has presented, simply and logically, the topics that relate directly to the facts of the language, and to the laws of its structure. The Sentence is taken as the fundamental unit, and all sepa- rate words or combinations of words, as only parts of this whole. Words and phrases, taken by themselves, are only fractional ; but, thrown into the form of a proposition, they assume an organic re- lation, and the value of each is Judged by reference to its yoke- fellows. The Parts of Speech are defined inductively. Particular in- stances are held in the foreground as the basis; and, as far as possible, the concrete examples are allowed to tell their own tale. Generalization is thus mainly left as an effect of these on the mind of the pupil. Instead of being exhausted in all its relations, the subdivision of each Part of Speech is separately discussed before the peculiar process of Inflection is begun. Nor can the distinct and important operations placed under In- flection obtain the prominence they deserve unless exhibited apart. No canon of teaching is of greater consequence in conveying gram- matical information than the doing of one thing at a time. After the pupil has been duly drilled in classification, phrase, and clause equivalents, and in the nature and use of inflections; VI PREFACE. after he is firmly grounded in the cardinal principle that the qual- ity of words whereby they are distinguished into Parts of Speech is a habit, and not anything innate in the words themselves, he is ready to concentrate his attention intelligently and pleasurably on systematic, or syntactical, parsing. Analysis, after being anticipated by the extended treatment of the Parts of Speech, by the constant reference of them to their function in the sentence, is fully explained and exemplified in its place. Of the great value of this exercise, when disencumbered of useless technicalities, it is unnecessary to speak. Syntax, freed from all matters pertaining to the classification, inflection, and derivation of words, falls easily under the three heads of Concord, Government, and Order. Here, and in the suc- ceeding chapter on Synthesis and Variety, the pupil is practiced, not merely in arranging words according to their grammatical con- nection, but in combining them according to the logical relations of the thoughts to be expressed. The method throughout is one that directs attention forcibly to the meaning. It recognizes the fact that our language is not ‘ grammarless ’ ; and, though parting with so many inflections of the synthetic languages on which our grammars have been modeled, remains perfectly logical. This book, accordingly, develops the whole science of the language, from the thought — the reversal of which rule has done so much to cause the general failure in this branch of instruction. The execution of the plan aims at a mean between two extremes: that of the scientist, who, on the one hand, regarding grammar wholly as a science, overburdens us with scholastic discussions ; and that of the reactionist, the teacher of composition, on the other, PREFACE. Vll who, i^^noring tlie requirements of science, sacrifices exactness to making the study ‘easy’ and ‘popular.’ Fully aware that there is no finality in grammar-making, the author trusts to have made only a nearer approach to the day when one-half of the time that is at present consumed in the study of English grammar will bear twice the fruit that we now realia;. No thorough English grammar can, to any very great extent, be original in either form or material without forfeiting all claims to public attention. Acknowledgments are especially due to the grammatical works of Dalgleish, liigginson, Morrell, Collier, Bain, Abbott, Morris, Swinton, Kellogg, Whitney, Laurie, and Tancock. In passing the book through the press, much valuable assistance has been given by Dr. W. G. Williams, of the Ohio Wesleyan University, whose sound judgment and long experience have fre- quently induced the author to modify parts or even to re-cast them. Columbus, Ohio, November 2J^, 1887. A. U. W. COOTEOTS. CHAPTER I. English — Growth and Relations . CHAPTER II. Symbols — The Alphabet .... CHAPTER 111. Unit of Speech — The Sentence . , , CHAPTER IV. Parts of Speech — Induction .CHAPTER V. Parts of Speech — Transmutation CHAPTER VI. Parts of Speech — Phrase Equivalents CHAPTER VII. Parts of Speech — Clause Equivalents. CHAPTER VITI. Parts of Speech — Nouns Classified . CHAPTER IX. Parts of Speech — Pronouns Classified CHAPTER X. Parts of Speech — Verbs Classified . CHAPTER XI. Parts of SpIsech — Adjectives Classified CHAPTER XII. Parts of Speech — Adverbs Classified CHAPTER XIII. Parts of Speech — Prepositions Classified . CHAPTER XIV. Parts of Speech — Conjunctions Classified CHAPTER XV. Pak,ts of Speech — Interjections Classified . PAGE . 1 5 . 11 16 . 28 34 . 36 40 . 44 51 . 56 61 . 66 69 . 75 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XVI. page Parts of Speech — Inflection of Nouns .... 77 CHAPTER XVII. Parts of Speech — Inflection of Pronouns . . . .90 CHAPTER XVIII. Parts of Speech — Inflection of Adjectives ... 96 CHAPTER XIX. Parts of Speech — Inflection of Adverbs .... 101 CHAPTER XX. Parts of Speech — Inflection of Verbs .... 103 CHAPTER XXI. Parts of Speech — How to Parse ...... 124 CHAPTER XXII. Parts of Speech — Word-Making ..... 131 CHAPTER XXIII. The Sentence — Principal Elements ..... 142 CHAPTER XXIV. The Sentence — Subordinate Elements .... 147 CHAPTER XXV. The Sentence — Independent Elements .... 154 CHAPTER XXVI. The Sentence — Classification ..... 155 CHAPTER XXVII. The Sentence — Analysis ....... 165 CHAPTER XXVIII. The Sentence — Government and Concord .... 175 CHAPTER XXIX. The Sentence — Order ........ 191 CHAPTER XXX. The Sentence — Synthesis and Variety .... 201 CHAPTER XXXI. The Sentence — Capitalization ...... 214 CHAPTER XXXII. The Sentence — Punctuation ...... 219 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. OHAPTEE I ENGLISH — GKO WTH AND RELATIONS. Our language is called ^ English ^ from the word JEnglUc (Angle or Engle), the name of a tribe of Ger- mans who, with other German tribes (Saxons and Jutes), settled in Britain about the middle of the fifth century. Their new home was called ^ngla-land, Gand of the Angles. ' The speech brought over by these people Avas unmixed, and was but little influenced by that of the old Celtic inhabitants of Britain, whom, for the most part, they drove out or destroyed. Some words, however (as crag, ^ ‘crock, ^ ‘cradle,’ ‘mop,’ ‘bonnet,’ ‘ribbon’), --were added from this source. Just as Ave in America retain a feiu Avords (as ‘^canoe,’ /Avigwam’) borroAved from the Indians that once spread over this continent. A fcAV Avords in general use (as ‘scold,’ ‘shy,’ ‘fellow,’ ‘cake’) were taken trom the Northmen of Scandinavia, who, in the ninth century, obtained a footing in the North and East of England. In the eleventh century the English Avere overcome by the Normans, Avho spoke French. After a Avhile the con- querors, being the smaller number, mingled Avith the con- 2 LESSOISrS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. qiiered^ and, by the mixture of the two, their speech also came to be somewhat mixed. Thus very many of our words come from France. For nearly four hundred years before the coming of the Angles, the Eomans had occupied the central portion of the island, and the English settlers adopted the Latin (or Eoman) names for certain familiar objects: vallum (a wall); castra (a camji), changed to ceastre, then to Chester (man-chester) ; strata —street — street. The Eoman priests and monks who brought Christi- anity to our forefathers in the sixth century, introduced some Latin words, connected chiefly with the services of the Church. Thus: LATIN. OLD ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. episcopus = biscop = bishop monaelius = munuc = monk sanctus sanct : - saint diaconus diacoii = deacon presbyter : preast = priest French is really an offshoot from Latin, and so the Norman Conquest was the means of adding to English another very considerable Latin element, much altered from the original form, as ^reason'’ (Lat. ratio, Fr. raison). Usually, words that have come to us directly from the Latin have not undergone so much change in spelling: LATIN. COMING DIRECTLY INTO ENGLISH. INDIRECTLY THROUGH NORMAN FRENCH. captivum ' > captive caitiff factum fact feat hospital e hospital hotel seeurum secure sure separare separate sever ENGLISH — GROWTH AND RELATIONS. 3 Through the Kevival of Learning in the sixteenth cen- turyEnglish writers added to the language very many Latin words with very little change of form. We have also borrowed many scientific and philosophi- cal words from the Greek, as ‘'music/ botany'’; and mis- cellaneous terms from numerous other languages, as ‘boom,’ ‘yacht,’ which are Dutch; ‘ calico,’ which is Hindoo; ‘ lilac,’ which is Persian; ‘satin,’ which is Chinese; and so on. Thus we see that the English language, as it now ex- ists, is made ui3 from many tongues. Yet the Anglo-Saxon is the basis, furnishing all our grammar (ways of putting words together), and the majority, perhaps three-quarters, of words in daily use. Saxon words are connected with the feelings of the great mass of the people, with the common arts and modes of life, the familiar sights and sounds of earth and sky. Thus, ‘father,’ ‘mother,’ ‘husband,’ ‘wife,’ ‘friend,’ ‘home,’ ‘cradle,’ ‘hunger,’ ‘sorrow,’ ‘anger,’ ‘wonder,’ ‘bitter,’ ‘tear,’ ‘smile,’ ‘light,’ ‘heat,’ ‘cold,’ ‘rain,’ ‘snow,’ ‘storm,’ ‘fly,’ ‘swim,’ ‘creep,’ ‘crawl,’ ‘sight,’ ‘touch,’ ‘taste,’ ‘body,’ ‘head,’ ‘ear,’ ‘eye,’ ‘tongue,’ ‘lip,’ ‘chin,’ and others of like import, — are Saxon. We have a very long series of English works, written at different periods, and going back beyond the time of King Alfred, who died in 891. From these writings we see how English has changed from time to time; some words passing out of use, others coming into use; some changing their meaning, almost all changing their pronunciation. Turn, for example, to the sixth and seventh verses of the first chapter of St. Mark, and compare what you see there with what follows: 4 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A. D. 1,000. And lohannes w«s ge- scryed mid oluendes haer um & fellen gyrdel wees ymbe his lend- enu. & gserstapan & wudu hunighe set. & he bodude & cwseth. strengra cymth sefter me thses ne eom ic wyrthe that ic his sceona thwanga bugende uncnytte A. D. 1150. And lohannes wees ge- scryd mid olfendes haere & fellen gyrdel waes embe his lend- ene & garstapen & wude hunig he set. & he bodede & cwseth. strengre kymth sefter me. thas ne sem ich wurthe that ic his scone thwange bugende un-cnette A. D. 1380. And John was clothid with heeris of camelis, and a girdil of skyu abowte his leendis ; and he eet locustus, and hony of the wode, and prechide, seyinge A streugere than I schal come aftir me of whom I kueliuge am not worthi for to undo the thong of his school! Because the English language was brought from Ger- many, it is still very much like the languages of Germany, and is accordingly often called a Germanic language. You may see this likeness by comparing, for instance, our Arouse ^ and ^thou hast’ with the German liaus and du hast. By extending this comparison, scholars have shown that most of the languages in Europe are related to each other by having descended from a common parent, the Aryan, whose ancient abode was somewhere in Asia. To rejiort and describe in an orderly way the facts of a language, to collect and set forth the manner in which it is used by people of the best education, is the true aim of a grammar. ’ CHAPTEE II SYMBOLS— THE ALPHABET. The examination of a word as we hear it^ shows it to consist of one or more sounds. These sounds are repre- sented to the eye by written signs called letters. The air breathed out from the lungs strikes with vary- ing force against two flat muscles stretched across the larynx, and causes them to vibrate. This vibrating makes sound, or voice. The articulating organs, throat, tongue, teeth, palate, lips, and nose, serve to modify the breath as it issues from the windpipe. If the breath comes out through the mouth held well open, modified but not interrupted or stopped by the actual contact of any of these organs, there is produced a class of sounds called vowels. To express the many varieties of these, we have only the five signs a, e, i, o, u, each of which has, in conse- quence, several values: a in fat. a in fate. 1 in knit, I in fine, b in not. o in note. 00 in fool, ob in good, ii in nut. u in tube. a in pair, ware. Ii in father, a in all. a in wander. g in met. e in meet. 5 6 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. The union of two vowels^ each of which is distinctly heard, is called a diphthong, as in ‘coil/ ‘cloudi/ ‘ ieudi.’ The union of two letters, only one of which is pro- nounced, or both of which stand for a single sound, is called a digraph: ‘heat/ “^frefght,^ ‘ guard/ ‘ gui&c/ ‘ gho&t/ ‘■yj/dal/ The union of three letters to express a single sound is called a trigraph, as lieu (=lu). A letter or combination that does duty for another letter or combination, is conveniently called a substi- tute: ‘himc’ {=ieum=ie-oom), ‘heau’ (=ho), heauiy (=he-?dy). When the stream of breath is wholly or partially stop- ped by contact with one or other of the organs of speech, we have consonants ; so named because they can not be perfectly uttered without the aid of a vowel. Thus the sound denoted by the sign h is uttered as hee, m as em, k as kay (=k«), etc. Stopped sounds are called mutes, or checks, as g, k, d, t, h, p. Sounds that may be prolonged are called spirants, as 7^, tU, /, s, z. Some (as h and d) are more easily pronounced than others (as y) and f); hence the former are said to be soft or fiat, and the latter hard or sharp. Again, according to the organ chiefly concerned in their production, consonants are : labials or lip-sounds, p, Z), /, v; dentals or teeth-sounds, d, t, th; gutturals or throat-sounds, k, g; nasals, passing through the nose, m, n, ng; palatals, j, y; r and I are called trills ; r, I, m, SYMBOLS — THE ALPHABET. 7 n, and ng in ‘ sing ^ are often called liquids, because they flow on continuously. Consonants, singly or in union, as in the case of vowels, frequently occur as substitutes : g for j, raye; c for z, ‘ sacrifice f for v ‘ of s or ti for sh, ‘ sugar and mo^ffon; for u, ‘ new ^ for i, ‘ thyme ^ and happy.'’ MUTES. SPIRANTS. Flat. Sharj}. Nasal. Flat. Sharp. Trilled. Gutturals G hard K NG . . II Palatals J Ch soft Y Palatal ) Sibilants \ Zh (azure.) ,Sh (sure) R Dental ) Sibilants ) Z (prize) S (mouse) L Dentals D T N Th (bathe) Th (bath) Labials B P M V W (witch) P Wh (which) Another Classification. Mutes — Those which, at the end of a ) , i n nv „ , ’ ^ { h, d, c (hard), g (hard), syllable, completely stop the T ) t Towel-sound. ’ Half- Mutes — Those through which ) the A’owel-sound can be im- V f,c (soft), ^(soft),y, s, v, z. perfectly prolonged. ) 8 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Liquids — Those which combine softly and easily with the mutes. They are also called semi- vowels, from the extent to which the voice can escape through them. Aspirate or Breathing — .... Compound Mutes — The mntes are related in pairs: SHARP. P t k s f I, m, n, r. Ti. X {—ks) ; q, always attended by w, as in queen, and, with u, = kuK b d g (hard) X V A frequent and convenient division of sounds is into (1) vocals, made by the voice, and rej^resented by vowels; (2) aspirates, made by the breath; and (3) sub-vocals, made by the voice and breath. (2) and (3) are repre- sented by consonants. A complete list of the written signs of a language is its alphabet. This word is derived from Alpha, Beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. In a perfect alphabet there Avould be as many letters as there are sounds in the language. Our forty-three sounds ought to be represented by forty-three symbols. Evi- dently, then, our alphabet is very imperfect: (1) It consists of only twenty-six letters, three of which, c, q, X, are not needed, since c may be represented by s or SYMBOLS — THE ALPHABET. 9 h (as in ‘'certain/ ^card'’), q by h, qu by hw (5'uick), x by Tc8 {iox). We have really, therefore, only twenty-three useful letters. (2) One letter or combination may stand for more than one sound, as s in ^ seas'; g in ‘'girl'’ and ‘'gin'’; a in ‘'ale,'’ ^add,'’ "shard,^ ^far^; ougli in ^ bough,'’ ^ borough,^ ‘'cough,^ through.'’ (3) The same sound is represented by different signs; as e in ‘'end,^ ^many^ (meny), ^said^ (sed), ^friend ^ (frend), and h in ^keep,’ ^ cause,-’ ^chorus.'’ (4) There are many silent letters; ^thr(9u^/^,'’ ^boro2<^/o'’ To remedy the defects of the alphabet — (1) It is supplemented by a number of double letters, or digraphs, which are as inconsistently employed as the simple characters themselves, as ‘'^^/iantom,’ ‘ mSilign,’ ‘You-ghJ (2) A final c is used to indicate a long vowel, as ‘'bite.'’ The preceding vowel, however, is not seldom short, as ‘live,'’ ‘give.'’ (3) A consonant is doubled to indicate a short vowel, as ‘folly,'’ ‘hotter.^ Under Their smallest combinations, the alphabetic elements produce syllaUes ; syllables produce words — monosyllabic (one syllable), dissyllabic (two syllables), trisyllabic (three), polysyllabic (man}?-). To give in their order the elementary sounds of a word is to spell it phonetically. The correct pronunciation of words (that is, according to the usage of the best speakers) is Orthoepy ; correct writing of them Orthography. 10 LESSOI^S I^T EE-GLISH GKAMMAK. EXERCISES. 1 . Give the first sound of each of these words : ant, ale, ox, oak, eye, oil, hour. 2. Give the vocals heard in — say, eight, keg, owe, myth, do, eel, 3. Give the first sound in each of the following: keg, fan, bud, dog, gun, log, jug, one, unit. 4. Illustrate by the use of I and t the difference between the sounds of letters and their names. 5. Spell the following phonetically: pass, stabs, hacked, bat, sigh, isle, weigh, way, write, right, rite, laugh, phlegm, ewe, Chaucer, Shakespeare, Byron. 6. What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? Give the several classifications of the latter. 7. Are iv and y vowels or consonants in the following? body, wagon, now, wonder, young, myrtle. 8. Write four words containing diphthongs. 9. Pick out the digraphs and substitutes in these words : ceiling, new, tour, buy, Christian, alien, ocean, England, busy, women, been, feint, Stephen, his, fusion, question. 10. In the following, how many letters are liquids? Sound the vowels, give the class and sub-class of consonants : God made the country and man made the town. What wonder then that health and virtue, gifts That can alone make sweet the bitter draught That life holds out to all, should most abound And least be threatened in the fields and groves? Possess ye, therefore, ye who, borne about In chariots and sedans, know no fatigue But that of idleness, and taste no scenes But such as art contrives, possess ye still Your elements; there only can ye shine. 11. In what respects is the English alphabet imperfect? OHAPTEE III. UNIT OP EXPRESSION— THE SENTENCE. Should you hear some person speak only the words ^ stars/ ‘leaves/ ‘iron/ you would naturally ask ‘Well, what about them? ’ Nor would you be satisfied, should you hear merely such expressions as ‘shine,’ ‘fall,’ ‘is useful,’ ‘room,’ ‘car- pet,’ ‘my,’ ‘is,’ ‘the,’ ‘in,’ ‘dusty,’ ‘very.’ The natural question would be. What falls? What shines? etc. Neither the single words nor the groups tell any thing. If now these words be fitted together in a certain way, no explanation will be required; Stars shine. Leaves fall. Iron is useful. The carpet in my room is very dusty. The meaning is here complete: something has been said or stated — a thought has been expressed. To say or tell something, to express a thought, is to make a Sentence. We can have a distinct and full meaning in two words; as Peter repented. Dogs fight. Diamonds sparkle, n 12 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Such are called naked sentences. They give the words necessary to a meaning, and all other words than these are enlargements ; as, ^ Peter tuho denied Ms master repented Mtterly/ A sentence used to tell or declare something, as above, is called declarative. But a thought may be ex- pressed in the form of a question, as, ‘'Are you sure?^ and it is then said to be interrogative; or in the form of a command or request, as, ‘^Obey your parents,^ and it is then said to be imperative ; or in the form of an exclama- tion, as, ^How beautifully the sun shines!’ and it is then said to be exclamative. By a slight change, a sentence that expresses a state- ment may be made to express a command, a question, or an exclamation: The tempest rages. Let the tempest rage. Does the tempest rage? How the tempest rages ! Let it be carefully noted that every sentence is made up of two parts: (1) What is spoken about, and (2) what is said. The former is the subject; the latter, the predi- cate. The subject without any enlargements is called the bare subject; and the predicate without any enlargements, the bare predicate. Thus: * Rain The coast A small leak The tempest of wind and rain They that have the greatest gifts falls, is clear. will sink a great ship. rages frightfully. live most humbly. UNIT OF EXPRESSION — THE SENTENCE. 13 The subject of a commanding sentence is "thou/ "you/ or "ye/ usually not spoken or written, but understood; as "Follow \tUoii\ me,^ "Be \jje\ also perfect.^ In a question- ing sentence — "Did he come?'’ "Is the bird singing?^ — ask "Did luho come?'’ "Is what singing?'’ Similarly in sentences of the stating form, like the following, for example, it may be helpful to ask, ‘Who or ivhat suc- ceeded?'’ "What is certain?" etc.: Emily succeeded. She succeeded. Her cdtempt to gather lilies succeeded. That she succeeded is certain. EXERCISES. 1. Predicate something of — Flowers Children Bees To see That he will die Water Clouds Grass Money He 2. Fill in the blanks with suitable am sure. withers. will have gone. broke his arm. How terrible is ! subjects: will go? burns. was crushed. is progressing. ■ might have been saved. 3. Give your reason for thinking that each of the following expres- sions is or is not a sentence. Make sentences, if possible, of such as are not : (1) A girl in the field. (2) Always going the wrong way. (3) Come. 14 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) A rolling stone gathers no moss. Open doors. Doors open. Fiddle. Cattle graze. Birds singing. The man driving the oxen. The horns of the oxen tipped with brass knobs. What a beautiful book you have ! That the earth is a sphere is easily proved. Twice ten is twenty. The week between Christmas and New Year’s. 4. Bead the subject and predicate of each of these sentences: (1) See that squirrel on the fence. (2) The clock is striking twelve. (3) Does Wilgus come home at midnight? (4) Can you guess how much Harry weighs ? (5) Is gold a mineral? (6) Five large, ripe, mellow apples were picked. (7) The greater portion of South America lie? between the tropics. (8) The golden lines of sunset glow. -,(9) On came the water. (10) Nothing but the whole world could satisfy him. 5. Fill in blanks so as to express questions: in France ? to write exercises? When was ? Which ? Does ? Are ? Is it pleasant to ? 6. Compose two interrogative and two exclamative sentences begin- ning with ‘how’ and ‘what.’ UNIT OF EXPRESSION — THE SENTENCE. 15 7. Arrange these words so that each group shall express a thought ; and tell whether the resulting sentence declares, asks, exclaims, or commands something: him, a, with, to dine, invited, a stork, once, fox. wanted, only, trick, a, stork, the, on, play, to, fellow, cruel, the. hay, the, shines, make, while, sun. party, at, a, wish, honor, we, the, company, of, your. mountains, the, high, are, how. saw, do, think tlie, what, stork, you. CHAPTEE lY. PARTS OP SPEECH — INDUCTION. Let us now examine some such sentence as this : ‘ The thirsty crow immediately pushed her bill eagerly into the jug; but, alas! she got no water, because the neck of the vessel was so narrow. ’ If we ask what each imrd tells us, we shall see that some words have like uses, and some have unlike. Thus, ^ crow,'’ ‘ bill,’ ^ water,’ ‘'neck,’ and ‘vessel ’tell us the names of things. But ‘pushed,’ ‘got,’ and ‘was’ are of quite another kind — they tell us what the crow did, or assert something about the neck of the vessel. ‘ The,’ ‘thirsty,^ ‘no,’ and ‘narrow’ are words of yet another kind — theyy;om^ out things, tell us of lohat sort they are. Compare ‘the thirsty crow ’ with ‘thirsty crow,’ ‘any thirsty crow,’ ‘ that thirsty crow,’ etc.; and ‘thirsty crow’ with ‘the crow,’ ‘the clever crow,’ ‘the had crow,’ etc. Again, the words ‘immediately,’ ‘eagerly,’ ‘so,’ are unlike the others — they tell us luhen, lioiv, or how much. ‘Her’ and ‘she’ stand for names. ‘Into,’ ‘of,’ ‘but,’ and ‘because ’ join parts, with this difference, — that the latter two join statements. ‘Alas ’ is thrown in, to express feel- ing, like a tone, a look, a gesture, or a cry in conversation. A great many words in every language are used in the same way as ‘crow,’ and ‘neck,’ — to name things. A great many are used in the same way as ‘ got ’ and ‘ was ’■ — 18 PARTS OF SPEECH — INDUCTION. 17 to assert something. Consequently, just as from certain likenesses we group together certain flowers, and call them roses, and from other likenesses group together other flowers, and call them lilies, so, from similarities in use, we group words into classes, giving to each a name. Thus, flnding that many words name things — things of which we can think and speak — we place them in one class, and call them Nouns. ^ Finding that many words tell us what things do or have done to them (‘'John was struck^), or assert that they are or exist, we place them in another class and call them Verbs. They assert action, being, or state of being. Compare ^The dog runs'’ with ‘The dog stands,’ ‘The dog sleeps,’ ‘ The dog is dying,’ ‘ The dog is killed.’ Not all words, however, that express action or condi- tion are verbs. Thus: (1) Skating is a winter sport. (2) The sleeping girl was awakened. (3) A screaming eagle caught a flying hawk. In (1) an action is named ; in (2) and (3) sometliing is described. To be a verb, a word must assert or declare — must go with the name of something, to state, or help state, something about it. The term ‘ verb ’ (from Latin verbum) means ivord, and this part of speech, is so called because it is the word, the essential part of the predicate, the word that gives life to a sentence. No group of words can be a sentence unless one of the words is a verb; that is, unless one of the words asserts or tells. From the Latin nomen, a name. 18 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. A word that expresses action, being, or state, but does not assert, is a verbal. As the examples have shown, two or more words ma}' be combined in a sentence to do the work of a verb: He recites his lesson. He is reciting his lesson. He has been recitmg his lesson. He should have been reciting his lesson. He ivas laughed at. A combination of words (not including a subject and jiredicate) used to do the work of one word, is called a phrase. A phrase that does the work of a verb is a verb- phrase. We find further that some words (like her ’ and she ’), while they do not precisely name things, are yet a kind of substitute for the ordinary names. These are put into a third class, and called Pronouns. i They distinguish ob- jects of thought in their relation to the speaker, denote an unknown object of inquiry, or prevent awkward repetition: (1) He, not I, will go. (2) Who is that? (3) Once upon a time a conceited frog saw a fine large cow in a green meadow. So the frog [he] said to his companions, ‘ Why should not the frogs [we] make the frogs [our- selves] as large as that beautiful animal?’ While the noun, the pronoun, and the verb are the essentials, they seldom make the whole of a sentence. We find that many words accompany them, and lean on them as on supports; as, ^the,’ ^ golden,^ and brightly,'’ in ‘'The ’ From the Latin pronomen, for a noun. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHDUCTIOH. 19 golden sun shines brightly/ To extend the illustration, if we say simply a^pi^les, we mean apples in general, and the word represents all apples. If, however, we say three, some, or many apples, the word is restricted in respect to the number denoted — it includes fewer objects than be- fore. If we say the, this, or that apple, the Avord is re- stricted not only to one object but to o. ])artieular one. If we say a large apple, the word is restricted in respect to the size, small apples being excluded. If we say a large red apple, the word is further restricted in respect to color, apples of any other color or size being excluded. Words that thus throw their force upon a noun or its equivalent, are called Adjectives. ^ Let it be remembered, in passing, that to restrict the scope or meaning of a word in this manner is to modify it; and every such restricting Avord, whatever it may throAV its force upon, is called a modifier. In 'He steps,’ the verb maybe variously applied; but if it be said 'He steps ’ (not softly or high or raindly or sloioly), these possible applications are limited to one — that is, the meaning is restricted or modified. Similarly in 'The lark soars aloft [where?], and always [Avhen?], sings S'weetTy [how?].’ Words thus used to mark the when, Avhere, or hoAv of verbs, are called Adverbs. 2 We observe, also, that most adverbs may modify adjec- tives and other adverbs; as H'ory good’ [how good?], 'good to-day’ [Avhen?], 'good here’ [Avhere?], 'good to gain heaven’ [why?]. Hence an adverb is a word used to mark ^From Latin ad, to, and jacere, to throw, = added to. = From the Latin ad, to, and verbum, = added to a verb. 20 LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. the when, 'where, how, or why of verbs, adjectives, or Oiher adverbs. AVere you asked where you are living, or where your pencil is, the adverb here or there would give hardly suffi- cient answer. Instead, you might reply : " My home is in Boston^; ^AVe have just moved into New York /row the country’; ‘'My pencil is in \^on, under, heside'] the box.’ That is, there are words which express neither things (like nouns), nor activities (like verbs), nor qualities or limita- tions (like adjectives and adverbs), but only their relations. Such are called Prepositions. i Hence, a preposition is a word used to connect a noun (or pronoun) — (1) AVith another noun or pronoun; as ‘the before ybster- day.’ (2) With an adjective; as ‘fond of books.’ (3) With a verb; as ‘speak to me.’ (4) With an adverb; as ‘never till to-day.’ Thus, prepositions connect words. The noun or [)ro- noun following the preposition is called the ohjcct. A preposition and its object is called an adjunct, or preposi- tional phrase. Adjuncts, as we shall have further occasion to remark, are mxodifiers, being equivalent to adjectives or to adverbs, according to the part of speech on which they throw their force. Thus, ‘' before yesterday, ’ since it restricts the noun ‘day,’ is an adjective; ‘of books,’ since it restricts the ad- jective ‘fond,’ is an adverb; ‘to me,’ since it restricts the verb ‘speak’ — that is, limits its possible meanings — is an adverb; ‘till to-day’ is an adverb restricting the adverb ‘never.’ ’ Latin before, and x>one7'e, to place; indicating the usual position. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHDUCTIOH. 21 If we wish to connect sentences, we must use still another kind of words. We may say: Such words are called Conjunctions.! Their principal and proper nse^ as in the examples, is to join statements, though some of the most common (especially ‘ and,'’ ^ or,'’ ‘ but ’) are also used to join words: A conjunction, therefore, is a word used, primarily, to connect sentences, or, secondarily, words employed in the same way in the sentence. If the pupil is doubtful whether a given word is a preposition or a conjunction, let him con- » Latin cow, with, and jungere, to join. I was punished. I was late. The sun rose. The ship sailed. You will be poor. You are idle. I like Harry. Harry likes me. I like Harry. Harry dislikes me. Much better, however : I was punished because I was late. 'When the sun rose, the ship sailed = The ship sailed when the sun rose. You will be poor, if you are idle. The cat and dog fought. He was poor hut honest. She writes well though slowly. Do you live in Boston or in Chicago? 22 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. sider whether it connects or can connect two statements. However, it should not be forgotten that the same word may be one and the other in different uses. Thus, ‘'He came before me [preposition] ; he came before I returned [conjunction]. Also, ‘'The battle was against him, before and behind ’ [adverb] . Words thrown into a sentence to express feeling (‘'oh!’ ‘hark!’ ‘alas!’ ‘fie!’) are called Interjections. This name (Latin inter, into, andyhcere, to throw) implies that, though it is convenient to put them into a class, they are unimportant to the make-up of sentences — can be omitted without changing the sense. Thus our many thousands of words are made to fall by similarities of use into eight classes. These, since words can not separately make a sentence, being thus merely fragments of a whole, are known as the eight Parts of Speech. 1 They form two general divisions; Principal — noun, pronoun, verb. S Modifiers — adjective, advert). Connectives — preposition, conjunction. Emotion-words — interjection. In telling the parts of speech, proceed in the following manner: A greedy, quarrelsome terrier, noticing that a butcher was looking in another direction, slipped into the shop and stole a beefsteak. Before he ate it, he thought that he would go to his kennel. ’ Sometimes the little words ‘ a ’ or ‘ an ’ and ‘ the,’ called the Articles, and verbals like ‘walking,’ ‘walked,’ ‘giving,’ ‘given,’ called Participles, are reckoned separate parts of speech, but not properly, since their uses are always those either of nouns or of adjectives. PARTS OF SPEECH — IHDUCTIOlSr. 23 WORD. MODIFIES WHAT? TELLS WHAT? IS WUAT? A terrier points out adjective greedy, i quarrelsome f terrier of what sort adjective terrier the name of What ‘slipped^’ noun (bare subject of sentence) noticing terrier expresses ac- tion, hut does not assert adjective (verbal) that joins a statement to ‘noticing’ conjunction a butcher points out adjective butcher who ‘ was look- ing ’ noun (bare subject of ‘ was looking’) was looking asserts verb (verb-phrase) in joins ‘ direction ’ to ‘was looking’ preposition another direction slipped into direction points out name what the terrier did joins ‘shop’ to ‘slipped ’ adjective noun verb (bare predicate) preposition the shop points out adjective into the shop slipped where adverb-phrase and joins ‘slipped’ and ‘ stole’ (may join statements) conjunction etc. etc. etc. etc. 24 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES. 1. Point out the action words, telling which are verbs, which are verbals, and which of the former are verb-phrases: Now to do this, he was obliged to pass a stream flowing not far off. Here, walking across a narrow plank that bridged the stream, he saw his own shadow in the water. Thinking [that] it was another dog with another beef-steak, he stopped. ‘Give it to me,’ he snarled, without opening his mouth: for he feared that his beef-steak might drop. But the other dog only seemed to snarl again. Irritated at this, the terrier howled still louder, still keeping his mouth shut: ‘If you do not give it to me, I will come for it.’ The dog in the water made no answer, but only seemed to grow more angry. ‘Will you give it to me? or do you mean to fight? If^you do, come on,’ said the greedy dog, now losing all patience as he saw the other dog preparing to spring upon him, ‘ When I once show my teeth, you will repent it.’ On receiving no answer, the terrier opened his mouth and leaped into the stream, dropping his beef-steak, which was rapidly carried down by the current. Thus the greedy beast, led by his greediness, and trying to gain what did not belong to him, lost what he already had. If he had been content with what he had, he might have eaten his beef-steak in peace. 2. Point out the nouns in — Some thoughtless boys were playing with stones near a pond. During their play they noticed a family of frogs and began to pelt them, not from cruelty, for they were not cruel, but from thoughtlessness. Very soon they hit one of the frogs, and all the family at once dived down in a fright beneath the surface of the water. ‘ This is fine fun,’ said the boys, ‘ we will wait till they come up again, and then we will give them a good pelting.’ Just then the mother of the frogs popped up her head, croaking so pitifully that the boys held their hands and did not pelt her. ‘Young gentlemen,’ said she, ‘if you are really gentle, you will not continue your PAKTS OF SPEECH — IHDUCTIOK. 25 sport. How would you like it if a giant killed your mother or sister for sport? But 'that is what you have done to me ; you have killed my youngest daughter, and maimed my '* two sons for life. What is sport to you is death to us.’ 3. Use pronouns to avoid awkward repetition here: Once an ass dressed an ass in the skin of a lion. On seeing the ass thus disguised, all the beasts of the forest fled away in fear, thinking the ass to be a lion, and fearing that the ass would devour the beasts. The fox alone did not run away, but hid the fox behind a tree, to note what went on. When the ass thought the ass was alone, the ass could not help braying with delight to see the beasts all so frightened at the ass. On this the sly fox stepped from behind the tree and said to the ass, ‘ Now the fox has [have] found the ass out. If the ass had only kept quiet, every one would have taken the ass for a lion. ’ 4. For what names do the pronouns in the following stand? The owl and the eagle struck up a friendship. ‘ How shall I know your young ones?’ said the eagle. ‘I have no fear that you will attack mine, but I wish to spare yours.’ ‘My chil- dren,’ replied the owl, ‘are the most beautiful birds in the forest; you will see none equal to them anywhere. Their plumage is as white as snow, their voice is sweeter than that of a nightingale, their eyes like those of a gazelle.’ ‘You astonish me,’ replied the eagle; ‘I have met many birds in my time, some very beautiful, but never any equal to these. However, I shall easily know them when I meet them. Now I will wish you good day.’ Away flew the eagle, and came in a few moments to the nest of the owl. When he spied the ugly little nestlings, he said ‘ These at least can not be the children of my friend, so I will have them for my dinner.’ Just when he was on the point of killing them, the owl flew down screaming with teri’or and anger. The eagle stopped in time, and explained that he had not knowp/fehem. ‘ But,’ added he, ‘ this is your fault, not mine. You ought not to think that ypar children will seem to others the same as they seem to you.’ 26 LEssoisrs i]sr ei^glish grammar. 5. Write or repeat what the italicized parts tell you; then the class ^Wliy are you spoiling my water?’ said the wolf savagely to the lamb. The wolf ^vas drinhing at the higher part of the stream, and the lamb some way heloiv, so that the wolf was quite %vrong; for the water %vent from the wolf doivn to the lamb, and could not come lack to the wolf. So the lamb quietly replied ‘ How can I spoil your water ? It comes from you to me.’ ‘■Perhaps you are right,’’ replied the wolf more savagely than before; ‘but why did you abuse me and call me a murderer?’ ‘I never did,’ said the lamb. ‘Yes, last year,’ said the wolf. ‘I was not born then,' answered the tremUing lamb. ‘Ah,’ replied the wolf, determined to pick a quarrel; ‘I remember it was your father; certainly he abused me last July.’ ‘But my father died early in the spring,’ said the lamb. ‘Then it was your grandfather or great-grandfather’; and at o?ice he fell on the helpless creature and tore her in pieces. 6. Fill in each blank with a preposition — with two or more when possible : (1) I differ you. (2) The locust the wall. (3) He died the winter. (4) The book the table. (5) I agree you. (6) We rode sunset, hills, fruiiful A^ales, -d— winding streams, thriving villages, nothing to annoy us dust. 7. Use these phrases correctly in sentences: 8. Pick out the phrases; tell (1) what each modifies; (2) whether it is used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun ; (3) what preposi- tion (if any) is used in the phi*ase, and why that word is a preposition: of each : to eat. will go. will be going might have been going under the stone, into the yard, against the wall, with her. PAETS OF SPEECH — INDUCTION. 27 A fox, passing by, seated himself at the foot of the tree. The boy with the best temper. Stories of interest to all. Pray without ceasing. The roof of the house is made of slate. It will be good for you. He had a home in the country. He ran off, laughing at the foolish raven. 9. Substitute in the above, when possible, single words for the prepositional phrases. 10. Join the following by appropriate conjunctions: Wolves hunt in packs. The moon has no water. dead. Carve out your own fortune. He said Printing was invented The powder was wet. Wild dogs hunt in packs. The moon has no air. He yet liveth. You would have any. The earth is round. Books became much cheaper. The gun did not go off. 11. Pick out the conjunctions below, and tell what sentences or parts they join : Once when the weather was very dry, a thirsty crow searched everywhere for water, but she could not find a drop. While she was croaking for sorrow, she spied a jug. Down she flew at once, and eagerly pushed in her bill; but it was of no use. There was plenty of water in the jug, but she could not reach it, because the neck of the vessel was so narrow. After she had tried in vain for half an hour to reach the water, she next attempted to tip the jug over; but it was too heavy for her, and she could not stir it. Just when she was on the point of giving up in despair, a new thought struck her. ‘If,’ said she, ‘I drop some stones into the jug, the water will rise higher, and in time it will rise up to my bill.’ At once, though she was nearly fainting with thirst, she bravely set to work. As each stone fell, the water rose; and, before half an hour had passed, the clever crow had drunk every drop in the jug. OHAPTEE Y. PARTS OF SPEECH — TRANSMUTATION. Just as a letter is made to do the work of other letters, so, in our language, a word that generally, or almost always, belongs to a particular class is made to do duty in some other class; that is, the same word may be now one part of speech, and now another, according to its use — according to what it tells us in the sentence. Thus, a word that is usually an adverb may become a noun ; (1) The ayes have it. (2) With God is an eternal noiv. (3) Start from here [= this spot]. A word that is usually an adjective may become a noun: (1) It was done in the clarTc. (2) The good die young. (3) Of old, this was not expected. Any letter, word, or group of words may, in certain connections, become a noun: (1) If is usually a conjunction. (2) Cross that t. (3) To give grudgingly is not charity. On the other hand, nouns and pronouns often do the work of adjectives: PARTS OF SPEECH — TRAHSMUTaTIOH. 29 (1) On the wild Neiv-England shore. (2) He disliked the Health-of- Towns Act. (3) Which train will you take ? (4) Yoib hard-hearted men. (5) They killed a sZte-bear. In these cases there is no change in the fo7'm of the noun or pronoun. In the following, however, the form is changed : (1) Lend me your book. (2) The books are in Albert's desk. Here, each word really does the work of two parts of speech: ^ Albert’s^ is a noun, in so far as it is a name; ‘ your •’ is a pronoun, in so far as it stands for, or rejiresents, a name; both are adjectives in office — adjectives, in so far as they are modifiers. Verbals may do the work of adjectives: (1) A defeated army. (2) The ivhistlincj wind. (3) A desire to excel is commendable. A word that is usually an adverb may become an ad- jective: (1) The then ruler. , (2) lie took the down train. (3) He lives in yonder house. Conjunctions and prepositions, or words commonly so used, may become adjectives: (1) This will be told in after ages. (2) In the above discourse. Words that are usually nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, etc., may become verbs: 30 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. (1) Bridle the horse. (2) They idle away their time. (3) I thou thee, thou traitor. Observe bow variously the same word is used, and bow variously it must bence be classified, in the following: (1) A horse. (2) A /torse-chestnut. (3) I live down in the valley. (4) He ran down the hill (5) It happened since Monday. (6) It has rained smce you were there. (7) They exchange the silver watch for a lump of silver with which they silver some metal coin. (8) He had all hut one, hut that was too heavy ; had he had hut more time, he could have brought it too. Always ask what the word tells you, or to what other word it relates. If it throws its force on a verb, it is either a noun (or pronoun), or an adverb; if upon an adverb o’’ adjective, it is an adverb; if upon a noun, it is an adjec- tive. If it is the name of anything we can think about or speak about — person, place, action, or thought — it is a noun; if it asserts, it is a verb. EXERCISES. 1. Of what parts of speech are the following verbals? (1) Seeing is helieving. (2) Father has gone a-hunting. (3) I saw a great piece of ordnance making. (4) Within the sound of some church-going bell. (6) I see men as trees ivalkmg. • (7) Doubtless the pleasure is as great of heing cheated as to cheat. PARTS OF SPEECH — TRANSMUTATION. 31 2. State first what the word tells you ; then name its class : (1) All men are mortal. (2) All is lost. (3) All around the world. (4) A man lihe few others. (5) The like of it w.as never known. (6) They like to study. (7) He did so, because it was so heavy ; but his step was light, because his heart was so. (8) High life heloiv stairs. (9) Go lelow. (10) The power from helow. (11) A running fire. (12) The messenger came running. (13) How far is it? (14) A result far beyond his hopes. (15) He went there. (16) My stay there was short. (17) His cousin was a soldier. (18) His soldier cousin. (19) Which will you take? (20) Which book will you take ? Suggestion. — Remember your definition of a pronoun — it Is used for & noun, not with a noun. (21) (22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (31) (38) (39) (30) (31) The which clause is an integral part of the sentence. What by this, and what by that, he succeeded. WaQ^what is more important than the how. The book which you have is mine. Distinguish between which and ivhat. Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note. To equal which the tallest pine were MU a wand. The thunder afar roused up the soldier. The torrid clime smote on him sore besides. Elbe went home, sad and slow. Yet let not one heart-beat go astray. 32 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (32) A love that shall be new and fresh each hour as the sweet coming of the evening star. (33) And make life, death, and that vast forever one grand, sweet song. (34) All that is shall be turned to ivcts. (35) Do you think I fahle with you ? (36) Who came after me? (37) Who came soon after? (38) Who came after 1 left? (39) Be mum until I return. (40) The proudest he that stojis my way, (41) The effect of thine o-yes was strange. (42) Here we may reign secure. (43) Farthest from him is best. (44) This was my happy triumph morning. (■^) The old she goat seemed uneasy. (46) Heavens! how dull he is! (47) Mark you his absolute shall! (48) He answered without an if or a hut. (49) He went away sorroiving. (50) He rode seated between two officers. (51) A fast was kept, (52) They were told to fast. (53) He drives fast. (54) He drives fast horses. (55) They walked past the house. (56) They walked past. (57) Past sorrows are soon forgotten. (58) The sorrows of the past are forgotten. (59) You fine down your distinction till there is nothing left. (60) If me no ifs. (61) He was an only son. (62) The man that did this. (63) The man said that he would go. (64) He spoke in under-ioacs. (65) The day before was rainy, and so was the day after. PAKTS OF SPEECH — TEAHSMUTATIOH. 33 (66) They will it. (67) He has a strong will. (68) In the second place, I second your proposal. (60) The wall within and that without. (70) Round the rocks they ran, where the round bay, swerving round gently, rounds the rugged shore. (71) Thou losest here, a better where to find. CHAPTEE YL PARTS OF SPEECH — PHRASE EQUIVALENTS. A Phrase is any combination of words that does not include both subject and predicate; as — To sing. Might have died. The boy. Having crossed the river. We are now to consider more particularly how f/roiqjs of words whose meanings are closely united very often perform the duties of single words. Thus: The bear sprang hastily from his grassy bed = The bear sprang in haste from his bed of grass. Erring is human = To err is human. Your mistake is deplorahle = Your mistake is to be deplored. Be good that \=in order that] you may be happy. Hence we may arrange phrases in the same classes in which we arrange words. If the phrase has the value of a noun, it is a noun; if it throws its force upon a noun, it is an adjective; if upon an adjective or adverb, it is an ^ adverb; if upon a verb, it is either a noun or an adverb, according to its use; if it asserts, it is a verb. Thus: (1) The house stood [where] 07i yonder hill . . . Adverb. (2) The house [what house?] on yonder hill is sold Adjective. 34 PAKTS OF SPEECH — PHKASE EQUIVALENTS. 35 (3) Hheh.OM'BQ standing on yonder MU ^ .... Adjective. (4) He wished [what?] me to go home Noun. (5) To love our neighbors as ourselves is divine . . . Noiin. (6) This done we departed [when?] Adverb. A phrase is frequently introduced by a preposition, a verbal, or a normal ^ adjective: (1) The study of history improves the mind. (2) To forget an mjury is noble. (3) Caesar, having crossed the Rubicon, gave battle. (4) He was a man generous in all things. The adjective-phrase in (4) includes an adverbial phrase. EXERCISES. In the following sentences, classify, as to office, each of the phrases printed in italics, and tell what you can about the form : 1. To die for one’s country is sweet. 2. Exhausted by fatigue, we lay down to rest. 3. Resentment ties all the terrors of our tongue. 4. He hears the parson pray and preach. 5. Little Ellie, with her smile not yet ended, rose up gayly. 6. It is a thing to walh with. 7. You have confessed yourself a spy. 8. Dear flower, fringing the dusty road with harmless gold. ^ The whole phrase is adjective because it modifies the noun ‘house’ ; ‘on yonder hill’ is adverb, as in (2), because it modifies the verbal adjective ‘standing.’ ® A word used regularly as an adjective. OHAPTEE All. PAETS OP SPEECH — CLAUSE EQUIVALENTS. Sentences (groiij^s of words including both subject and predicate) frequently do the work of single words. Thus: The ivise man = The man who is wise. He reported the death of the king = He reported that the king had died. The long-tailed monkey = The monkey that has the long tail = The monkey with the long tail. Other examples are: (1) Speak [how?] as he does Adverb. (2) He asked [what?] are .... Noun. (3) Her answer was [what?] ‘S'etm are we’ . . . Noxm. (4) The causes 77mif Zed to the ivar \ivhat . Adjective. (5) That we are safe is apparent [what is apparent?] . Noun. A sentence thus doing the work of a noun, an adjec- tive, or an adverb, is called a Clause. It differs from a phrase in containing both subject and predicate: it resem- bles a phrase in being used with the force of a single word. When phrases and clauses, and words not regularly nouns, are used in sentences with the value of nouns, they are said to be used substantively. Substantive ’ is an- other '^name for noun.'’ Inquire how the clause is used in the sentence. Is it subject? does it tell what is asserted? — If so, it is a noun. 36 PARTS OF SPEECH — CLAUSE EQUIVALENTS. 37 Does its meaning relate to a noun? — If so, it is an ad- jective. Does it throw its force upon an adjective or an adverb? — If so, it is an adverb. Does it seem to be more closely connected with the verb than with any thing else? — Then it is either a noun or an adverb. Can it be the former? If not, it is the latter. EXERCISES. 1. Classify the clauses, giving the reasons why: (1) He was so weak that he fell. (2) That he fell is certain. (3) He said that he fell. (4) The fact that he fell is apparent. (5) You err in that you think so. (6) I am sorry that you think so. (7) The country whence he came is desolate. (8) I know not whence he came. (9) If I fought bravely, I should be rewarded. (10) You have heard if I fought bravely. (11) Why we the stern usurper spared I know not. (12) But I saw a glow-worm near, who replied: ‘ What wailing wight Calls the watchman of the night ? ’ (13) I answered whenever you called. (14) I can' always tell when you are angry. (15) Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever satv. (16) Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. (17) This is a proof that he never came. (18) There are many things I might tell you. (19) God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. (20) As I entered, so will I retire. (21) Then think I of meadows where in sun the cattle graze. (22) Unless I am mistaken, it was he. 38 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (23) They are better than ive had expected. (24) I fear he leill not succeed. (25) I am certain he will not succeed. (26) I found the book you want. 2. Tell whether the italicized parts are phrases or clauses, and classify each, giving reasons : (1) To confess the truth, I was wrong. (2) You have no right to decide ivho are interested. (3) He had an axe to grind. (4) I am thy father’s spirit, doomed for a certain time to walk the night. (5) The year when Chaucer was horn is uncertain. (6) Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding. (7) They will call before leaving the city. (8) They will call before they leave the city. (9) Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending. (10) They that touch pitch will be defiled. (11) He came. (12) Because he came. 3. In two different sentences use the same word (same in form) as an adjective and as an adverb. 4. In two different sentences use the same word as a preposition and as a conjunction. 5. In two different sentences use the same word as a conjunction and as an adverb. 6. In two different sentences use the same word as a pronoun and as a conjunction. 7. In three different sentences use the same word as a noun, as a verb, and as an adjective. 8. Compose a sentence containing a noun-phrase, an adjective- phrase, and an adverb-phrase. PARTS' OP SPEECH — CLAUSE EQUIVALENTS. 39 9. Compose a sentence containing three adjective-phrases, — one introduced by a preposition, one by an adjective, and one by a verbal. 10. Compose a sentence containing four different forms of phrases — two being of one kind, and two of another. 11. Compose sentences each of which shall contain a clause: (1) Three with clauses used as nouns — one as subject, two in the predicate. (2) Three with clauses used as adjectives. (3) Six with clauses used as adverbs — two modifying an adjec- tive, two a verb, and two an adverb. CHAPTER YIII. PARTS OP SPEECH — NOUNS CLASSIFIED. Just as there are different kinds of roses, lilies, or apples, so each of tiie eight great classes of words may be divided into other classes. Thus, in the sentences — Emily is the oldest daughter of the family, London is the largest city in the world, ^ Emily ’ and ^ daughter ^ are simply different names for the same person; London^ and ‘'city'’ are likewise applied to the same object. But ‘ daughter'’ is a name that belongs to Emily and each of her sisters — it belongs to all girl- children; and city '’ is the name of all places of sufficient size — it is the name of every one of a class. ‘'Emily,'’ on the contrary, is a word used to distinguish one member of the family from the rest — it is her own; and ‘'London'’ is a name by which one city is distinguished from other cities. A name given to an individual of a class, to distinguish it from the other individuals of that class, is a Proper i Noun. In contrast to such, all other names are called Common Nouns — names owned in common by a number of things of the same sort — class names. ’ Latin proprkis, proper = peculiar to one. 40 PAETS OF SPEECH — HOUHS CLASSIFIED. 41 The pupil must bear in mind that here, as elsewhere, everything depends upon use — the class to which a noun belongs depends entirely upon the duty it performs in each particular case. Thus ^ White ^ and ^ Longfellow^ point out individuals, white ■’ and ^ long fellow ^ do not. ^ Sea is a common name and dead is a common quality; but if we wish to combine these two in order to point out a single object, this peculiar use makes them in every sense 'proper, — ^Dead Sea.'’ Most mountains are green, but some are especially so; and custom says that the latter shall be known as the ^ Green Mountains.'’ ‘^Providence'’ means simply care, and therefore in itself is a common noun; but when it is used to denote the Creator of the world, it is in that connectio'a a proper noun, and this different use is, in writing, made known to the eye by beginning the word with a larger letter. Decline,^ ‘ fall,'’ and ‘ empire,^ again, are in themselves common; but, combined into the name of a particular book, they become, by this new and special duty, proper, as in Gibbon’s ‘ Decline and Fall of the Eo- man Empire.'’ When a common noun includes in one mass or body a number of individuals, it is said to be a Collective Noun : The fleet was victorious. He saw a^floch of sheep. A common noun that is the name of an action, is a Verbal Noun: We are fond of reading. Giving is better than receiving. We may also remind you of the verbal noun-phrase : To give is better than to receive. I do not like being deceived. Without being very much surprised. 42 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. A common noun that is the name of a material^ is called a Material Noun: It was made of iron. Brass is composed of zinc and copper. The earth rotates on its axis. Look at this piece of chalTc. A common noun that is the name of a quality of some person or thing, is an Abstract Noun.i Thus, chalk is white, solid, rough or smooth, useful, etc. These words tell us of what sort. The names of these qualities are ^whiteness,'’ ‘'solidity,^ roughness^ or smoothness,’ "use- fulness,’ etc. Similarly: Have courage and patience. Her friendship is ennobling. His generosity won him many friends. Names of the objects possessing these qualities — names of whatever can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled, or heard, are Concrete Nouns ; 2 as "James,’ "flower,’ " ice,’ " army,’ "boy.’ EXERCISES. 1 . Fill in the blanks of the first group with collective nouns ; of the second with verbal nouns; of the third, with abstract nouns: (1) A of girls. A of Indians. meets in December. was organized in July. (2) We dislike are necessary. is forbidden. I like ^Latin abstrachis, drawn off, separated ; hence the quality apart from the object to which it belongs. ® Latin concretus, grown together; hence, formed by the union of particles. PAKTS OF SPEECH — HOUHS CLASSIFIED. 43 (3) Cultivate shall not be forgotten. He expressed his His was great. ruins many. 2. Tell the difference between the nouns in each of the following expressions : (1) A bunch of grapes. (2) A group of girls. (3) The weight of the lead. (4) The laughing of the knot of boys. (5) The master of the school. (6) Punishment for having lied. 3. Write or repeat the names of qualities expressed by ‘harsh,’ ‘small,’ ‘truthful,’ ‘cruel,’ ‘kind,’ ‘long,’ ‘strong,’ ‘glad.’ 4. Tell all you can about each noun in — At the time of Braddock’s defeat, an Indian chief named Pontiac had seen the red-coats running away before his own men. Being a man of great courage and skill, he laid a plan to unite all the tribes of his race, and to drive the English out of America. First he tried to take Detroit, which was then only a fort; but he failed, and his conspiracy broke down. Soon after, he was murdered, in a drunken frolic, by another Indian. CHAPTEE IX. PARTS OF SPEECH — PRONOUNS CLASSIFIED. There may be several persons represented in a sen- tence: I said to the man who stood near me, ‘ Did you see the boy when he did this?’ Here ^ I ^ and ^ me ’ stand for the name of the person speaking. ^ You ^ stands for the name of the man, the per- son spoken to. ^ He ^ stands for the name of the boy, the person spoken of. ‘^Who'’ stands for ^man,"* and carries back to it the predicate ^ stood near me.'’ This ^ stands for the name of the thing spoken of, and refers to it defi- nitely — pointedly. ^gain : Who rang the bell ? What are you reading? What book are you reading? Do you know this man? Here, as before, who ’ stands for the name of a person (unknown), but receives a new character from being used to inquire after that person. The first ^ what ^ evidently . inquires after a thing, stands for the name of it, and is therefore a pronoun; the second leans upon ^book,^ and is therefore an adjective. ^ This points out, particularizes, but does not stand alone, and therefore has ceased to be a pronoun. 44 PARTS OF SPEECH — PRONOUi^S CLASSIFIED. 45 Certain other words, used to signify persons or things taken generally, have a likeness to pronouns: Either will do. Nobody knows you. Ten will be chosen. The little ones are asleep. The others are in the parlor. Aecording to their uses, then, pronouns are — 1. Personal— ^ I,'’ ^you,^ ‘he,^ ^she,^ and ^it.^ So called because they name the person speaking or spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 2. Demonstrative — ^this,^ ^that,^ ^same,’ ‘such,^ ‘former,^ Catter.^ So called because they speak definitely of the thing named. ‘This'’ points to the object nearer the speaker; ‘that," to the object farther off: In this ’tis God directs, in that ’tis man. 3. E/elative— ‘who/ ‘which," ‘what," ‘that," ‘as." So palled because they usually relate, or carry us back, to some noun or pronoun going before, and already given, called the antecedent. 4. Interrogative — ‘who," ‘which," ‘what," ‘whether " (archaic). So called because they are used in asking questions. "‘Who" is substantive only; ‘which" and ‘what" are substantive or adjective, according to the con- nection. 5. Indefinite — ‘some," ‘any," ‘many,’ ‘few," ‘all," ‘both," ‘none," ‘each," ‘either," ‘neither,’ ‘other," ‘an- other,’ ‘aught," ‘naught"; and the compounds of ‘some," ‘any," ‘every," and ‘no," with ‘one," ‘thing," and ‘body"; as, ‘somebody," ‘ anything," etc. So called because, while 46 LESSOJSrS ENGLISH GEAMMAE. they stand for names, they do not point out or particu- larize. They are in fact intermediate between real pro- nouns and nouns or adjectives. They may he either sub- stantive or adjective. The pronoun-phrases, “"each other" and ‘'one another/ are now used as simple indefinite pronouns. They are called reciprocal pronouns, because they express the mutual influence of two or more objects; They love each other = They love, each [of them the] other. They whisper to one another = They whisper, one to another. The personal pronouns are combined with self " — (1) To mark emphasis; as ‘He Mmself did it." (2) Chiefly, to form reflexives — that is, to indicate that the action of the verb is reflected back upon the actor; as ‘He hurt himself.’ The pronoun it appears to have several distinct modes of reference — (1) To a substantive going before; as ‘I went to the river; it was swollen." (2) To a sentence going before; as ‘The day loill he clear, who doubts it? (3) To a word, phrase, or clause coming after; as — It is a beautiful child. It is pleasant to see the sun. I can mak§ it clear that I am guiltless. (4) There is, further, a wide and an exceedingly vague use of ‘it," not to be overlooked: PAKTS OP SPEECH — PEOHOUHS CLASSIFIED. 47 It is they. Trip it as ye go. Who is it? It rains. It will soon come to a quarrel. Observe that relative prononns not only stand for nouns, but, unlike other pronouns, join to some foregoing word a modifying clause; that is, they are also conjunc- tions— ^ Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and the man ivho getteth understanding. Certain adverbs, derived from relative pronouns, are often used with the above described value of relatives: The spot whereon [ = on which] he stands. The day when [ = on which] you were born. Do you see the place where he lies? In such cases, the adverbs have tv/o values. As connect- ing their clauses with the antecedents, they are conjunc- tions; as modifiers of the verbs in their own clauses ( ^ stands, born, ^ and Hies'*), they are adverbs. The word but, too, in certain negative assertions has the force of a relative or conjunctive pronoun: There was no man hut did his best = There was no man that did not his best. As, preceded, by ^some,^ ^such,'’ or ‘many," has the force of a relative: He denounced such as voted against him = He denounced them that [or who] voted against him. As many as wish to go, may go. 48 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. What is not used of persons, and as a relative is commonly said to differ from tlie other relatives in that it contains within itself both antecedent and relative: Give me what you have = Give me that which you have. It were better, however, to say that the antecedent ^ that,' or ‘'that tiling,^ is understood. In the following sentence it is expressed: What our contempt doth often hurl from us, We wish it ours again. ^ Which, as a relative, applies only to things, a com- paratively modern restriction; but, as an interrogative, to either persons or things; as, ‘ Which of yon convinceth me of sin?^ This word preserves for us the adjective lU (like) and the pronoun hwa (who). Old-English forms are htvilic, Imilc. Not infrequently the relative is omitted: The book {thaf\ you sent me. The message \thaf\ I was sent with. ’Tis distance [thaf] lends enchantment to the view. The relatives are compounded with ^so,^ ‘'ever,^ and soever,'’ giving an indefinite meaning, and having their antecedents often left unexpressed: Whosoever is ivise = Any person who is wise. There is a similar indefinite use of the simple who; as — ■ ‘ Who steals my purse, steals trash.’ The pupil must not fall into the error of thinking that the foregoing words, or others, belong always to the same PAETS OF SPEECH — PEOHOUJSTS CLASSIFIED. 49 class. Many of them are freely otherwise used, and then must be classified accordingly. EXERCISES. Classify the pronouns, supplying such as are omitted, and giving your reasons in each case for the classification : 1. Who said that? 2. I don’t know who said that. 3. I don’t know the man who said that. 4. That man will be elected. 5. What book is that ? 6. I said that. 7. I said that I would go. 8. He is the man that said that. 9. That that that that man used should have been a which. 10. The bed which he bought. 11. The ground whereon he lay. 1 2. There is something in the wind. 13. There is somewhat in the wind. 14. It is a pretty saying of a wicked one. 15. We speak that we do know and testify that we have seen. 16. What night is that which saw that I did see? 1 7. That gentleness as I was wont to have. 18. There is nothing good or bad but thinking makes it so. 19. The place whereto he came, was waste and bare. 20. Whether is greater the gift or the altar ? 21. Eith'er’s love was cither’s life. 22. He knew not which was which. 23. It is not difficult to die. 24. It grew dark fast. 25. The good news came at a time when good news was needed. 26. I will call when you return. 27. I thought he was a rascal, and he was such. 28. The ass that frightened the beasts of the forest was laughed at when he began to bray. 50 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAH. 29. If you are a man, show yourself such. 30. He has such great confidence that he will be sure to suc- ceed. 31. Who gained the prize? 32. Did you ask who gained the prize? 33. This is the house Jack built. 34. Which have you? 35. Which book have you? 36. You know which book I have. 37. Find out which of the girls whispered. 38. I can not tell which girl whispered. CHAPTER X. PARTS OP SPEECH — VERBS CLASSIFIED. We have found that every sentence must have a Verb in it — that the verb, alone or with other words, forms the predicate. Verbs that of themselves have full meaning as predi- cates, are said to be complete ; as When, in order to make sense, a verb requires the addition of a word relating either (1) to itself, or (2) to the subject, it is said to be incomplete ; as The completing word or group of words is called the complement. Verbs like those of (1) are inco7nplete in the sense of calling for the addition of a word to exjDress some person or thing on which the action is exerted. A much smaller class, like those of (2), are incomplete in the sense of call- ing for some addition relating to the subject, and further describing or qualifying it. He sleeps. Fishes swim. Water freezes. They went. Truth exists. Fire burns. (1) I shut the door. He struck John. (2) He looks sick. I am the man. 51 52 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAR. A verb that^ like am in (2), merely couples or links the complement to the subject^ is called copula. i Thus: God is good. You are happy. Rome ^ms a city. They had been friends. He will he ill. He may he ill. He may have been ill. He must not he ill. If the verb not only couples the complement to the subject, but has, in addition, some meaning of its own, it is said to be copulative (partaking of the nature of copula). Thus: He looks sick= He is, in looks [or according to his looks] sick. Other copulatives are ‘'become,'’ ‘seem," ‘appear," ‘feel," ‘grow," ‘continue," ‘smell," ‘stand," ‘sit," etc. He continues grateful. He stands firm. They sit mute. The same word, be it remembered, may be complete, incomplete, copulative, or no verb at all; as — Ice melts. I am [= exist]. Heat melts ice. I am your brother. March your corps to Paris. It rained. The march was fatiguing. It rained manna. A certain difference of meaning, again, separates verbs into two principal classes: 1. Transitive; 2 which express an action that termi- nates directly on some object: Heat melts ice. Cold freezes water. ^ From the Latin, and meaning a coupler, or link. ® Latin trans, over, and ire, to go, the idea being that the action passes over from the subject and affects some object. PAETS OF SPEECH — VERBS CLASSIFIED. 53 2. Intransitive; which express (1) a state or condi- tion; (2) an action not terminating on an object (or doing so only by help of a preposition) : He sleeps well [state or condition]. He arose [action confined to subject]. He ran against the man [action expended on an object by help of preposition]. This, however, is not always a distinction in the nature of things; for the same verb, expressing the same action, may be either transitive or intransitive: (1) The child sees the house. . (2) The new-born child sees, the kitten is blind. (3) He struck the man. (4) He struck at the man. (5) The boy ran. (6) The boy ran a race. (7) The boy jan them out of the yard. (8) He dreams. (9) He dreams a dream. (10) He dreams of being at home. (11) He dreams that he is at home. In (6), (9), and (11), the verb is said to take a cognate object; that is, an object whose meaning is like that of the verb. Verbs used with the subject it (when ^it’ is indefinite) are sometimes — though the distinction is of very little worth — said to be impersonal; as ‘^It thunders.^ In the earliest period, to express some unknown cause of inex- plicable results, they wrote ^It repents, shames, me.^ A relic of the old usage is ^methinks"; that is, ‘It seems or appears to me.^ 54 LESsoisrs iisr English grammae. Words denoting state- or action, but without asserting it (verbals), may of course be used and be modified in the same way as verbs, and hence will be similarly classified: He was fond He was fond of readiyig neivspapers. To read profitably, read carefully. EXERCISES. 1. Construct sentences in which each of these words shall receive two or more classifications — transitive, intransitive, complete, incomplete, copulative — as verbs : teach smell broke have been ring speak stand sing 2. Pick out the verbs, and state (after giving your reasons) (1) whether they are transitive or intransitive ; (2) if intransitive, whether they are copulas, copulatives, or neither : (1) He rested easily. (2) He rested himself. (3) Elephants eat. (4) Elephants eat greedily. (5) Elephants eat candy. (6) He sleeps the sleep of death. (7) The baby walked. (8) The boy walked rapidly. (9) The boy walked himself weary. (10) He leaves town to-morrow. (11) He is leaving for India. (12) But see thou change no more. (13) Part we in friendship from your land. (14) Should I not write, you must know all is well. (15) He had been blamable. (16) Law wills that it be known. PAETS OF SPEECH — VEKBS CLASSIFIED. 55 (17) He looked a look that threatened her insult. (18) May there be no ill-will between us. (19) Motionless as a cloud the old man stood. (20) What matter where, if I be still the same, And what I should be, all but less than He Whom thunder hath made greater? 3. Pick out the verbs and verbals, and classify them into transitive and intransitive : An old man had several sons, who were very quarrelsome. Few days passed without a violent quarrel, and often they came to blows. One day when the young men were bring- ing some faggots home for firewood, the father called them round him. Speaking to the eldest, who was first in order, he bade him try to break a faggot ; he tried, but could not break it. Then turning to the next son, ‘ See,’ said the old man, ‘whether you can break this faggot.’ But neither the second, nor the third, nor the seventh (for there were seven sons) could manage to break the faggot. Then the old man, undoing the string that fastened the faggot, broke each stick separately. ‘ If you keep together, ’ said he, ‘ no man will be able to hurt you ; but if you continue your foolish quar- rels, your enemies will destroy you, just as I break these sticks.’ OHAPTEE XI. PARTS OF SPEECH — ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun, or its equiv- alent, to limit its application. Tlie important divisions are: 1. Quality Adjectives, those that express some prop- erty or characteristic in the object described; as bright,^ ‘wise,'’ ‘good,'’ etc. These embrace the great body of ad- jectives. Proper adjectives — those derived from proper names — are chiefly adjectives of quality, as ‘the Socratic method.’ 2. Interrogative Adjectives, or the interrogative pronouns, ‘which’ and ‘what,’ used adjectively: ^ Which boy did it?’ ‘What book are you reading?’ 3. Demonstrative Adjectives, or those that particu- larize; as ‘the,’ ‘this,’ ‘that,’ ‘former,’ ‘latter,’ ‘yonder,’ etc. The words ‘this’ and ‘that,’ along with ‘these’ and ‘ those,’ have the same differences of meaning when adjec- tives as when pronouns. ‘ The,’ derived from the Anglo-Saxon thcct, is common- ly called the Definite Article. It has an adverbial use in such a sentence as ‘ The more you study, the better you will like it.’ This is a relic of the Anglo-Saxon ‘ Thi mara , . . thi betra/ etc. 4. Quantity Adjectives, those that express some 56 PAKTS OF SPEECH — ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 57 extension, of number or measure, in the object. They may be subdivided into: (1) Quantity in mass or bulk; as ‘much benefit,^ ‘little light,’ ‘less light,’ ‘great rivers,’ ‘some feeling.’ (2) Quantity in number . Under these we have — (a) Defi7iite numerals; as ‘one, two, three, four, ox five days’ {cardinal number); ‘first, second, third, fourth, ox fifth day’ {ordinal number). The multiplicatives, ‘single,’ ‘double,’ ‘twofold,’ ‘threefold,’ etc., maybe included; also ‘another,’ the second of two, and ‘both,’ mean- ing two taken together. {h) Indefinite numerals; as ‘any apples,’ ‘many books,’ many a man,’ ‘all men,’ ‘some men,’ ‘certain men,’ ‘feio men,’ ‘ not a few men,’ ‘ most men,’ ‘no man.’ In a positive sense ‘ a ’ and ‘ any, ’ as derived from Anglo- Saxon an (one), mean ‘one,’ but without emphasis. An or A is called the Indefinite Article, and is used only with a singular noun. ‘ An ’ is used before a vowel- sound, ‘ a ’ before a consonant. {&j Distributive numerals: ‘each,’ denoting two or more things taken separately; ‘either,’ one of the two; ‘ neither,’ excluding each of two; ‘every,’ meaning each individual of a group or collection separately consid- ered— an emphatic word for ‘all’; ‘several,’ a small number — ‘ several men were killed.’ Here again we must remind ourselves that a given word has not always the same use; for some of the above are mentioned in two classes, and were previously mentioned as pronouns. W e have seen elsewhere how frequently words that are usually {normally) one part of speech are made to do duty {abnormally^) as another: ‘Latin ah, from, and normal, regular; departing from regular usage. 58 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAE. Cod-Liver oil ) Mountain rill ^ The under current Hither Glaul The let-alone policy An out-of-the-way place Nouns. Preposition. Advert). Yerl). Phrase. Take also tlie following: (1) John’s book. (2) Paul, the apostle. (3) The human form, God’s image. (4) Love of country. (5) Man, aspiring to angelic heights. (6) The soldier to he executed was saved. (7) The man ivho loves virtue will be safe. (8) The fact that he succeeded is apparent. All these italicized parts are adjectives in office or effect — abnormal adjectives we may call them. Nouns used as in (2) and (3) and (8),. to explain or identify^, are called Appositives, or are said to be in ajjposition.'^ Apposition may be assumed, as in (2); also adjective limitation generally, as in ^his toMte hair’; or they may be asserted, ^ as in — Paul was an apostle. His hair is white. EXERCISES. 1. Distinguish between ‘pen,’ ‘ a pen,’ ‘one pen,’ and ‘the pen.’ 2. Explain the difference between ‘ Her soldier cousin,’ ‘Her cousin, a soldier,’ and ‘ Her cousin was a soldier.’ 1 Latin apj)onere, to put beside. * There are some Verbs whose nature it is thus to connect Nouns or Pro- nouns, placing them, as it were, in Apposition.— Rev. E. A. Abbott: How to Parse. PAETS OF SPEECH — ADJECTIVES CLASSIFIED. 59 3. Modify the following nouns (1) by appositives, (2) by verbal and prepositional phrases, (3) by relative clauses : Washington Peter ox power college economy care fact gold rank mountain memory life habit of these words and phrases as an adjective; Baltimore whose his American Henry’s flying few loaded that to come what of words 5. Classify the adjectives (1) into normal and abnormal, and (2) into quality, quantity, interrogative, and demonstrative: A great battle was raging between the birds and the beasts; it had lasted all day, and was not yet decided. Not a bird or beast but had taken one side or other in the battle — all but the bat. She alone, the cowardly creature, would take no part with either side. In vain the eagle, the general of the birds, being hard pressed by his enemies the beasts, sent her his commands by the swallow to join the army of the birds. ‘How can you give me the name of bird?’ she replied; ‘ what bird has teeth as I have ? ’ Sobn afterwards the lion, the king of beasts, finding the battle going against him, sent to say that he would forgive her her past cowardice if she came at once to join his army. ‘ What right has he to ask of me such a favor?’ replied the bat. ‘ How can he take me for a beast ? Even a mole can see that I have wings. Who ever saw a beast with wings ? ’ / ^ Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed on the point of gaining a complete victory, and eagerly offered the eagle her services. But the eagle answered, ‘ Just now you 60 LESSON'S IN' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. told us that you were a beast. Go to your friends the beasts. They need your help more than we.’ The bat r^ired in con- fusion; but an hour afterwards, fortune inclining towards the beasts, she humbly approached the lion offering him her help. ‘You would not do us a kindness when we were in trouble,’ roared the lion, ‘ and now do you talk about giving us your help? Away with you! The battle once over, I will make short work with you.’ Rejected by both parties — the natural result of her cowardice — the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So she skulks in dark places and prefers the night to the day — a warning to all men that they must not ‘trim.’ OHAPTEE XII. PARTS OP SPEECH — ADVERBS CLASSIFIED.. An Adverb is a word used to limit the application of a verb^ adjective^ or other adverb. There are instances where the adverb seems to throw its force on a preposition; as ‘long after the event/ much before the event/ ‘greatly above him'’; but in these cases the adverb may be said to modify really the adverbial or adjective phrase. The chief varieties are adverbs of — 1. Place, or Local; as Hhere/ ^ where/ ^ below/ ^yonder/ ‘'thither/ ‘thence/ ‘whence/ ‘near.'’ The first of these has a very peculiar use. Instead of say- ing ‘once a good king tvas,’ or ‘once a good king existed/ we say ‘ there was once a good king. '’ In this use, the word has no reference to the idea of place — it is a mere intro- ductory (or expletive) word. Nor is it difficult to account for the transition. To say that a thing is in a certain place is implicitly to say that it exists; and hence the localizing statement, ‘ once a king was there,'’ has become the statement of existence, ^ ‘ there was once a king [ = a * king once existed].'’ ' ' 2. Time, or Temporal;, as ‘ever," ‘lately," ‘often," ‘twice," ‘daily," ‘while," ‘when," etc. 3. Cause, or Causal; as ‘therefore," ‘wherefore," ‘ why," etc. ’ Bain, 61 62 LESSOJsrS I2Sr ei^glish grammak. 4. Degree or Measure, or Intensive [liow much?]; as ^almost/ ^nearly/ ^little/ ^partly/ ^sufficiently/ ^ much/ ‘ quite/ etc. 5. Manner, or Modal: (1) ^well/ Svisely/ ^how/ etc.; (2) ^ truly/ surely/ probably/ ^yes/ ffiiot/ etc. Those under (1) throw their force, in general, upon words; those under (2) more especially upon statements, showing how the thought is conceived, as in ^he is cer- tainly, prohaUy, jiossihly, or not sick."* 6. Yes and no,^ used in responding to questions are called Responsives. They modify very loosely, if at all. Other parts of speech are occasionally used as adverbs. Many words that in their usual application are preposi- tions, are thus employed: He stood hy. He went down. Go in and see him. He passed through. Also: (1) He went home. (2) He sat an hour. (3) Drink deep. (4) The sea-wind sang shrill. (5) Right against the window. (6) It is somewhat large. (1) and (2) may he explained hy the abbreviation of the adverbial jffirases, Ho his home,'’ \for or during an hour"; (3) and (4) are mainly the usage of poetry. PARTS OP SPEECH — ADVERBS CLASSIFIED. 63 The equivalents of the adverb are phrases and clauses: Easy to see. The sun sets in glory. Convenient for overseeing the work. At sunrise the ship sailed. The sun rising, the ship sailed. When the sun rose, the ship sailed. As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. If you go, I will follow. I will follow wherever you go. 7. Some of the above, used in asking questions, may be called Interrogative Adverbs ; as ^ when,^ ‘ where,'’ ‘whither,^ ^whence,’ *^why,^ Miow',^ — all derived from the Anglo-Saxon liiva, '^who.'’ 8. When they introduce a modifying clause, they are conjunctive; and since they also modify the verb of the clause that contains them, they are called Conjunctive Adverbs : I will praise thee while I live.’ 9. They are also, it will be remembered, used with the value of relative pronouns "He died in the house luhere [=in which] he was born.’ As Relatives they are equivalent to " what ’ and " which ’ with prepositions. The adverbial relatives are of great use in varying the language of composition. The same adverb, it should be understood, may require different classifications in different connections: He never will submit. The Lord is king, be the people never so impatient. It will sometimes happen that a word has clearly a ^ Hee Bain's English Grammar, p. 25; also Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, p. 78. 64 LESSOis^S IN' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. double character, and we have then to consider which, if either, of its uses is principal: (1 ) He sat next. (2) He stood firm. (3) He went away sorroiving. (4) He rode seated hetioeen two officers. (5) 'Rovf jocund did they drive their team! The qualifying force in (1) and (2) seems to be about equally distributed between subject and verb; in (3), (4), and (5) there would appear to be a chief reference to the manner of the action. EXERCISES. 1. Distinguish between ‘ we feel warm' and ‘ we feel warmly.' 2. Make sentences in which each of the following expressions shall be used as two or more parts of speech, one in every case being an adverb. Give the sub-class : out only ill there far away very in no respect well by all means before beyond all doubt much when he came little if he will go enough where she was so happy below so, as 3. Classify the adverbs into normal and abnormal, and give the sub-class : (1) They rejected, with contempt, the ceremonious homage which other sects substituted for the pure worship of the soul. (2) He understood by their signs that they wished to be in- formed whence he came. PAETS QP SPEECH — ADVEKBS CLASSIFIED. 65 (3) She herself drew the design of that monument with her own hand, and left it with me when she went away. (4) Cowper said, fifty or sixty years ago, that he dared not name John Bunyan in his verse, for fear of causing a sneer. (5) We live in better times. (6) Admirable as the natural world is for its sublimity and beauty, who would compare it, even for an instant, with the sublimity and beauty of the moral world ? (7) When life begins, like a distant landscape, gradually to disappear, the mind can receive no solace but from its own ideas and reflections. (8) Not many generations ago, where you now sit encircled with all that exalts and embellishes civilized life, the rank thistle nodded in the wind and the wild fox dug his hole unscared. (9) After this bustle of- preparation, and amid the silence which follows it, Henry Brougham takes a slow and hesitating step toward the table, where he stands crouched to- gether, his shoulders pulled up, his head bent forward, and his upper lip and nostril agitated by a tremulous motion, as if he were afraid to utter even a single sen- tence. (10) It seems easier to do right to-morrow than to-day, merely because we forget that, when to-morrow comes, then will be now. (11) During her wane, while inferior luminaries were brighten- ing around her, he was growing fainter and smaller every evening. CHAPTER XIII. PAKTS OF SPEECH — PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFIED. Prepositions are connecting words nsed to indicate the relation of a noun, or its equivalent, to something else. They are so named because they were originally prefixed to the verb to modify its meaning, as in ^ for-swear.^ They were first local, indicating rest or motion; as ^in,^ ^011,^ *^at,^ ^by,"* ‘io/ ^into,^ ‘'from,^ " under, ^ ^ be- hind,^ ‘between,’ ‘among,’ ‘upon,’ ‘off,’ ‘above,’ ‘for’ (meaning ‘before’), etc. By degrees they came to denote the relations of time, as well as of place; as ‘since,’ ‘till,’ ‘until,’ ‘during,’ ‘pending,’ ‘after,’ ‘in a year,’ ‘by Christmas,’ near six o’clock,’ ‘within the week,’ etc. Then they were further extended to denote other rela- tions: agency and instrumentality, as ‘by,’ ‘through,’ ‘with’; end and reason, as ‘for,’ ‘from’; reference, as ‘a work on grammar,’ ‘I sing o/war,’ ‘ touching this mat- ter ’; possession, as ‘ the book of the scholar ’ [ = the scholar’s book] ; material as ‘ a crown of gold ’ [ = golden crown]; exclusion as ‘none hut him,’ ‘save one,’ ‘all excegot John,’ ‘without,’ ‘ besides,’ etc. Many phrases are conveniently, though not always log- ically, treated as prepositions. Such are — in spite of out of according to from out of as for as to PAKTS OF SPEECH — PKEPOSITIOHS CLASSIFIED. 67 by means of in point of in respect of in case of in accordance with for the sake of because of by way of instead of along side as regards by virtue of The parts of such phrases, when possible, should be classi- fied separately. Frequently, especially in poetry, the object precedes the preposition: (1) What did you come for? (2) Look the whole world over. (3) I must use the freedom [that] I was born with. (4) This is the will [that] I told you of. Sometimes, as in (3) and (4), the object is omitted. A prepositional complement sometimes enters into the structure of a verb-term as an organic constituent; His zeal was wondered at. The case shall be attended to. We have a peculiar character to keep up. The important thing in these exercises, is tp be able to point out the object, to what it is joined, and for what pur- pose. The relations expressed are (1) adjective, when the preposition unites its object to a noun or pronoun; (2) adverbial, when it unites its object to a verb, adjective, or adverb. EXERCISES. 1. Write sentences in which you use a prepositional phrase to limit the application of a noun, a pronoun, a verb, a verbal, and an adjective. 2. Embody these phrases in sentences, and classify the prepositional phrase : accuse of change for offensive to inquire of change to prejudice against inquire for change into share in G8 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. cull on call at differ from agree with conversant witii insist upon die for believe in die by- die of share of taste for taste of fall under fall into 3. Classify the italicized parts : (1) He runs about. (2) He runs about the house. (3) That was done long since. (4) That was done since yesterc^y^b ^ I (5) He will come, since he always keeps his promises. (6) He will do this, for he promised. (7) He will do this for the sake of his promise. (8) He will do this for his promise’ sake. (9) The Normans were superior in point of learning. (10) The Normans were superior in point of learning. (11) He stabbed him from behind. (12) He laughed a.t me. (13) ’Tis all the joy I can hope for. (14) I swear that no one was to blame but me. (15) Before then she had been a, washer-woman. (16) He came from [a place] beyond the seas. (17) It was sold for under -half -its value. (18) The mountain trembles from on-high. (19) He was well until quite recently. (20) The hare scoffed at the tortoise for his slowness, and chal- lenged him to a race. ‘Let us run,’ said she, ‘iip to yonder rock, and you shall have a start of half a mile.’ ‘ Done,’ said the tortoise, and off- he plodded. The hare sat down to watch him, and laughed till her sides ached. At last, tired with laughing, she fell asleep. Meantime, the tortoise had crept up the hill and ivas steadily ap- proaching the goal. Noiv, too late, the hare awoke from her sleep, and dashed after him with all her speed ; and indeed — so swift was she — she nearly overtook him. But, before she had reached the top, the tortoise was up on the rock, waiting for the prize. CHAPTEE XIV. PARTS OP SPEECH — CONJUNCTIONS CLASSIFIED. The primary and ordinary use of Conjnnctions is to unite sentences: (1) Day ends, and night begins. (2) He did not speak, hut he fought. (3) I will come when I am at leisure. (4) He will succeed because he is in earnest. Each sentence of (1) has the value of a separate asser- tion— ‘'Day ends/ ‘'Night begins.'’ The same is true of those in (2) — ^He did not speak/ ^He fought.^ Such sentences are said to he Co-ordinative. The word means ‘of equal order or rank.’ In (3), the second sentence defines the time of coming: it means the same as ‘at my leisure/ and is thus equivalent to an adverb of time, quali- fying ‘will come.’ The second sentence of (4) is an ad- verb of cause or reason, modifying ‘will succeed.’ It serves merely to explain or describe the first statement, so may be said to be a servant to it. Such sentences (clauses, we have called them) are Subordinative, that is, ‘of under order or rank.’ Instead of saying ‘He went,’ ‘I went,’ or ‘It is impor- tant if it is true,’ we can use the shorter forms — He and I went. It is important if true. 69 70 LESSO^rS IN' ENGLISH GRAHMAE. Thus, while conjunctions commonly unite sentences, both classes — the co-ordinative in particular — are used to connect words. In case of the subordinative, however, the fact of an omission of what might be and generally is expressed, is more distinctly felt, and the conjunction must be understood as joining really a dependent sentence. The true test of the character of a conjunction is, Does it join parts of the same or of different rank? Thus, in the following, the parts, though subordinate in themselves (that is, with respect to what they modify), are co-ordinate with respect to each other; A diligent and prudent man will be successful. The music that you heard, and with which you were so delight- ed, is one of Wagner’s compositions. Conjunctions, then, are — 1. Co-ordinative; those that join parts independent of one another. The sub-classes are: (1) Copulative; such as unite parts whose meaning adds to, or accords with, what precedes; as ‘and,^ ‘’also,^ ^ like- wise,^ ‘'too,'’ ^not only but,^ ^ moreover,^ ^be- sides,’ ^now,^ ^well,^ ^first,^ ^secondly.'’ ^And^ is the most important — it unites, and does no more. The rest are adverbs, having the same effect of union, but with ad- ditional shades of meaning. (2) Alternative; those that offer or refuse a choice; as ‘or,^ ^nor,^ ^ either,^ ^neither,'’ ‘^else,'’ ‘'either or,^ etc. (3) Correlative; pairs of the foregoing; so called be- cause one calls for, and answers to, the other: ^ either . . . . . or,'’ ‘neither nor,^ ‘both and/ ‘ not only but,’ ‘ whether or.’ PAKTS OF SPEECH — COHJUHCTIOISIS CLASSIFIED. 71 (4) Adversative; those that imply something adverse or opposed to what precedes; as ^hnt/ ‘'yet/ ‘however/ ‘still/ ‘nevertheless/ and (rarely) ‘only.'’ The first of these is chief. Its characteristic meaning is suggested by its Anglo- Saxon form h - nt - an =. be - ut - an = be -f- nt (out). It is a very forcible word. (5) Illative; those expressing inference or conclusion; as ‘then/ ‘hence/ ‘therefore/ ‘thus/ ‘so/ ‘consequently/ ‘accordingly.^ ‘Therefore’ occurs oftenest^ and is the type of the class. 2. Siibordinative ; those that Join modifying parts to the part modified. The commonest of this class are con- junctions of — (1) Place; as ‘where/ ‘whence’: I live where sunshine is perpetual. (2) Time; as ‘when/ ‘as/ ‘while/ ‘until/ ‘before/ ‘ ere/ ‘ since/ ‘ after/ etc. : He died as [or while] he was on his way to Washington. It has been done since you were here. (3) Cause and reason; as ‘for/ ‘since/ ‘as/ ‘because/ ‘ inasmuch as/ ‘ for as much as 1 will resume my seat, for I can not be heard. Hs [or since\ I can not be heard, I will resume my seat. (4) Condition; as ‘if/ ‘unless/ ‘except/ ‘provided/ ‘ although/ ‘ albeit You will be saved if [or provided'\ you repent. Except [or unless'] you repent, you will perish. (5) Purpose or result; as ‘that/ ‘in order that/ ‘lest/ ‘so that.’ ‘Lest’ denotes the purpose or result to be avoided: n LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. He died that we might live. He shouted till [or so ihaf] the woods rang. They set a strong guard lest he should escape. (6) Gomparison: ^as/ Thus — He is as tall as I [am tall]. He is taller than 1 [am tall]. The- pupil should guard against the use of the adverb ‘like ^ for the conjunction ‘ as/ to express similarity: Do this lihe [as] I do. Nobody will miss her like [as] I shall. (7) Substantive; any of the preceding, and especially ‘that,^ when introducing a substantive clause: I asked tohen 1 should go. He said that he would go. That he will go is certain. 1 know where you are going, and how you will do it. (8) Retative; relative pronouns and adverbs: The time that you name is satisfactory. The time at which he will go is uncertain. The time ivhen [or place tvhere'] he will go is uncertain. Where he goes, there go I. As ye sow, so shall ye reap. As to conjunctive phrases (‘as if,'’ ‘ as soon as,^ ‘so as,^ ‘so far as,'’ ‘ no sooner than,^ etc.), the words forming them should be considered separately whenever this is possible. Only a few of the so-called conjunctions are used solely as such, — ‘and,’ ‘or,’ ‘nor,’ ‘lest,’ ‘than.’ Even the last is treated as a preposition in snch expressions as ‘than whom there is no better.’ The different sub-classes, too, shade into one another, the same conjunction having a variety of offices. Thus: PAETS OF SPEECH — COHJUHCTIOHS CLASSIFIED. 73 (1) So you are late again, as usual. (2) He did it as quickly as he could. (3) He was appointed as general. (4) He did it as you have done it. (5) As we are at leisure, let us enjoy ourselves. In (1), is a relative pronoun; in (2), it is first an adverb of degree, then a relative adverb; in (3), it is re- dundant— useless; in (4), it is a pure conjunction, intro- ducing a modal clause; in (5), it introduces a clause of reason. EXERCISES. 1. Make a sentence in which each of these words shall be used as three or more parts of speech, two of which shall be conjunc- tion and preposition — but before for since till except besides after notwithstanding 2. Use ‘ whence, ‘since,’ and ‘ that,’ in two or more sub-classes. 3. Use each of the following as two or more parts of speech, one of which shall be conjunction, and none of which shall be prepo- sition — so yet if , now ere when then still where also that however Give the class and sub-class of the italicized parts — (1) As I looked up, I saw the man before me. (2) God shall help her, and that right early. (3) If he do so bleed. I’ll gild the faces of the grooms withal, For it must seem to be their guilt. (4) Awake, arise, or be forever fallen 1 u LESSOKS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (5) But thou Revisit’st not these eyes . . . Yet not the more cease I to wonder. (6) We have no slaves at home — tJmi why abroad? (7) His face did shine as the sun. (8) He was of poor but honest parents. (9) In spite of all that you say, I still believe it, (10) He argued as if the world were about to end. (11) Tlien he returned. Well you know what followed next. (13) But I saw nothing but the long valley of Bagdad, 5, Pick out the conjunctions and conjunctive words, give the class and sub-class, and, in the case of subordinative conjunctions, tell of what part of speech the clause is: Long ago, when people used to worship many gods, a carter was striving to make his way with a heavily-loaded wagon through a miry lane. The horses did their best, but the wagoner, who did not wish to take more trouble than he could help, was content to sit upon the wagon and let the horses carry him while he cracked his whip and sang songs. Presently the road began to rise, but still the wagoner kept his seat. Soon they came to a place where a torrent seemed to have dashed across the road, wearing a deep pit with its waters. The horses put forth all their strength to pull the wagon across, but in vain ; all their efforts could not even move the wheels, which began to sink deeper into the pit. Now when it was too late to do anything, the good-for- nothing carter got down from his wagon ; but all that he did was to curse and swear at the horses. Finding that cursing did not move the wagon, he at last thought he would try what praying could do. So, falling on his knees, he be- sought Hercules, the god of hard work, to come and help him in his troubles. In an instant Hercules was on the spot ; but, instead of helping him, ‘You lazy fellow, ’ said he, ‘how dare you send for me till you have tried to do without me? Learn that Hercules helps none but those that are willing to help themselves.’ OHAPTEE XT. PARTS OF SPEECH — INTERJECTIONS CLASSIFIED. Interjections are words or cries that express a strong or sudden feeling. They are a part of speech in the sense, not of a modifier (though they do intensify or otherwise affect the statement), hut of a means of expression not wholly unlike a scream, a groan, a sigh. They are classed according to the emotion expressed, which may be — (1) Joy; as ^oh,^ ‘ Sbh/ ‘ha/ ^luzza,’ Hiurrah.’ (2) Sorrow; as ^oh,^ ^ ah,^ ^alas,’ ‘ well-a-day,^ ‘'dear me.'’ (3) Contempt and Disapproval; as ‘fie," ‘fy," ‘poh," ‘faugh," ‘fudge," ‘foh," ‘pish," ‘pshaw,’ ‘pooh," ‘tush," ‘tut," ‘whew,’ ‘avaunt." (4) Superior Curiosity; as ‘heigh," ‘hey," ‘eh," ‘oho," ‘ha-ha." Still other uses are those of — (5) Calling attention ; as ‘lo," ‘ho," ‘halloo," ‘hem," ‘hoy," ‘ahoy," ‘whoa," ‘haw." (6) A call to silence; as ‘hist," ‘hush," ‘tut," ‘mum." (7) Greeting and Parting; as ‘hail," ‘welcome," ‘adieu," ‘good-hye." Most interjections are founded upon grammatical words, and certain grammatical words may stand as interjections 75 76 LESSORS m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. in an occasional way without permanently changing their nature. Thus: Indeed = in deed = in reality. Hallelujah = ‘praise ye the Lord.’ Alas = ah lasso = ‘ 0 miserable.’ 0 dear= 0 dien = ‘0 God.’ Good-bye = &’ m’ ye = ‘ God be with you.’ Hail = Anglo-Saxon wes tlm hal = ‘ be thou hale ’ = ‘ be whole.’ Clearer examples of nouns, verbs, adverbs, and adjec- tives lapsing into the interjectional state may be seen in ^ shame,'’ ^ farewell,^ ‘^soft,’ ‘'hark,'’ ^ behold,^ ‘^why,^ *what,’ ^well,’ woe’s the day.’ EXERCISES. Give the class and (when there is such) sub-class of italicized parts : 1. You like this, 2. Aivay! I prithee leave me ! 3. What! is great Mephistopheles so passionate? 4. 0 ye judges! it was not by human counsel .... that this event has taken place. 5. Tush! tush! ’twill not again appear. . 6. But harlc! he strikes the golden lyre. 7. What the mischief caxi he be doing? 8. Good heavens! can virtue live in such a place? 9. The ayes were declared to have it amidst the loud hurrahs. 10. IW pooh-poohed all their ym^oes. 1 1 . Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 12. Why, do you think him false? 13. Why he spared me I knew not. 14. Forget! forget! Is this thine only word? 15. Good day, old friend! and so you have returned. 16. Hush and be mute, or else our spell is marred. OHAPTEE XYI. PARTS OF SPEECH— INFLECTION OF NOUNS. Some words, you may have noticed, change their form to express a change of use. Thus ‘ The tree falls ^ becomes ^ the trees fall when the word ^ tree is required to denote more than one; and this change requires a corresponding change in the verb from falls'’ to ‘'fall.’ ‘The tree falls’ becomes ‘ The tree fell,’ to indicate that the act of falling is not now going on, but took place in some time gone by. ‘He struck me’ becomes ‘I struck him,’ to indicate that the one who inflicted the stroke in the flrst case, endures the stroke in the second. Compare ‘I met Robert, tuho had grown to be six feet high,’ with, ‘I met Robert, luhom I recognized at once.’ Similar changes are: ‘speak,’ ‘speakest’; ‘John,’ ‘John’s’; ‘wise,’ ‘wiser,’ ‘wisest.’ This change in the form of a word, either to denote a change of meajiing or to adapt it to be used along with the different forms of other words, is called Inflection. The name (Latin inflectere) means ‘bent into shape.’ The change itself is brought about sometimes by a change made in the word (‘one man,’ ‘two men’); sometimes by adding an initial word (‘maa-servant,’ ‘mafcZ-servant’); sometimes by the substitution of what seem, to be, or really are, wholly different words (‘am,’ ‘was,’ ‘I,’ ‘we’); but mostly by adding a final letter or syllable (‘lion,’ lion-ess’). 7T 78 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. The additions are often spoken of as (1) ])rejixes, (2) end- ings or suffixes. English, having lost the greater part of its endings, supplies their place by distinct words. Thus, Anglo-Saxon wulf-es = o/ a wolf or a wolf’s wulf-e = to or for a wolf drine-aw = to drink drinc-e — I drink gast-e = s7i.e-goat The simplest form of the inflected word is called the hase, theme, or stem. Nouns are inflected to mark Gender, Number, and Case. I. All animals, many plants, have sex; and names that distinguish them with regard to sex, have gender. i Names for objects of the male sex are of the Masculine gender, as ‘king'’; for objects of the female sex, of the Feminine gender, as ‘queen.’ Names of objects without sex are Neuter, as ‘silver,’ ‘oak,’ ‘bread.’ A noun that is applicable to either male or female, is said to be of the Common gender, as ‘imrent,’ ‘child.’ In actual usage, however, the customary masculine name includes the feminine, as ‘man’ (in its broad sense), ‘horse,’ ‘dog’; or the usual feminine name may be used to include masculine. Thus ‘goose’ and ‘duck,’ which were originally feminine, do acceptable duty for ‘ gander ’ and ‘drake,’ and so become of common gender. When the idea of intelligence is not prominent, when the sex is unknown or unimportant, the name is generally treated as neuter, and we may say: It is a beautiful bird. I French aenre, Latin aenus. kind. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOJST OF HOUHS. 79 A little child, dear brother Jim, That lightly draws its breath. And feels its life in every limb, What should it know of death? If we wish, on occasion, to mark the sex, we prefix some adjective word, as ^male-bird,’ ^she-bear/ Inani- mate and irrational things, on the other hand, are some- times personified — that is, are spoken of as if they were persons, and therefore of the masculine or feminine gender: Personification is in our language striking, because unusual; whereas in Latin, Greek, French, and German, where nouns are masculine or feminine regardless of the sex of the object signified, the ascription of gender to things inanimate produces no effect on the mind. A Ger- man speaks of his s]ooon as lie, of his fork as she, and of his knife or wife as it. The gender of nouns, when shown in their form, is expressed : 1 . By a prefix signifying the sex, thus making what is called a compound word: 2. By the use of distinct words, distinct in appearance or in fact:i 1 True inflection being a change in the form of a word, the use of adjec- tives and distinct words to mark gender is no real inflection, but rather a sub- stitute for it. Charity seeketh not her own. Love in my bosom like a bee Doth suck his sweet. /te-goat man maw-kind s7te-goat wo-man [= m/e-man] tt'omaw-kind LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. bachelor maid horse mare boy- girl husband wife brother sister king queen bull cow lord lady cock hen man woman colt filly monk nun drake duck nephew niece earl countess papa mamma father mother ram ewe gander goose sir madam gentleman lady son daughter hart roe uncle aunt 3. By suffixes, ess, ix, en,ina,ine, ster, er: MASCULINE. FEMININE. MASCULINE. FEMININE. abbot abbess instructor instructress actor actress Jew Jewess baron baroness lad lass benefactor benefactress lion lioness chanter chantress marquis marchioness count countess master mistress czar czarina mayor mayoress dauphin dauphiness _ negro negress deacon deaconess patron patroness director directrix peer peeress duke duchess poet poetess emperor empress priest priestess enchanter enchantress prince princess executor executrix prophet prophetess founder foundress protector protectress giant giantess shepherd shepherdess god goddess songster songstress governor governess sorcerer sorceress heir heiress tiger tigress hero heroine tutor tutoress host hostess viscount viscountess PAETS OF SPEECH' — IHFLECTIOH OF HOUHS. 81 The tendency is to disregard the distinctive marks of gender in the use of many common words; authoress/ ^poetess,'’ for instance, are now nearly obsolete. Ess, of ISTorman-French origin, and attached mostly to words so derived, is the suffix most extensively employed. To make the pronunciation easier, the vowel of the mascu- line may be changed, as ^mistress,'’ for ‘'masteress.'’ Ster, as a feminine sign, survives only in ^spinster’ and ^foster- mother^ (= food-ster mother). The Saxon and French endings are combined in ^ seam-str-ess ^ and ‘'song-str-ess.'’ Sometimes it implies merely depreciation or contempt, as in ^youngster,’ ^trickster.'’ ^Yix-en,^ feminine of ^fox,^ is the one remaining instance of an inflectional ending once common. Er is used' to form the masculine from the feminine in “^widow-er.^ ^ Sultan,^ ^ Sultana,^ ‘'signore,^ ‘'signora,^ ‘infante,^ ^infanta,-’ illustrate a mode of forming the feminine in words of foreign origin. II. Number-forms distinguish the object of thought in respect to number: Singular, one; Plural, more than one. The plural is formed — 1. By internal change: 2. By the suffix en, with or without other changes: Singular. Plural. men = 0. E. men man = 0. E. ^ man foot = 0. E. fot goose = 0. E. gos tooth = 0. E. toth mouse = 0. E. mus feet = 0. E. fet geese = 0. E. ges teeth = 0. E. teth mice = 0. E. mys child ox oxen = oxan (0. E.) children = cildru (0. E.), cliildre. brother 0. E. stands for Old English (Anglo-Saxon). 82 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. 3. According to the rules of the language from which the noun is taken: Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. formula formula3 stratum strata nebula nebulae criterion criteria tumulus tumuli basis bases radius radii axis axes animalculum animalcula focus foci datum data appendix appendices juedium media vortex vortices phenomenon phenomena seraph seraphim 4. Eegularly, by the suffix es, which in many words coalesces with the final syllable of the singular, and appears as merely s: (1) When the singular ends in a sibilant or palatal sound f s, z, X, sh, cli, j ), there must be, for ease of pro- nunciation, a vowel to break the articulation of the hissing consonants, and the fuller form is retained; ^dish,'’ ‘'dishes^; ‘'kiss,^ kisses’; ‘^box,’ boxes’; ^church,’ churches’; ‘'prize,’ ‘prizes.’ The s is here pronounced as 2;. (2) By a caprice of s])elling, some nouns ending in 0; nouns ending in g following a consonant and changing into ij nouns ending in f (If) following a long vowel and changing f into v, — add es, though it is not pronounced as a distinct syllable: ‘negro,’ ‘negroes’; ‘story,’ ‘stories’; ‘thief,’ ‘thieves.’ (3) Other nouns — and these are the great majority — add only s to the singular: ‘hat,’ ‘hats’; ‘hoe,’ ‘hoes’; ‘fee,’ ‘fees.’ The rules for pronunciation are: (a) When the noun ends in a sharp consonant, p, f, h, f, th (in tJiin), the ‘s’ has its sharp sound (as in ‘sea’); ‘caps,’ ‘tacks,’ ‘cakes,’ ‘safes,’ ‘coughs.’ PAKTS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF HOUHS. 83 (b) When the noun ends in ng, in a flat consonant, 1), v, d, g, ih (in ‘ thQ ’), or in a liquid, I, m, n, r, or in a vowel, — the ‘ s ’ has its flat sound of z; ‘ songs,’ ‘ days,’ ‘ eyes,’ ‘ cares,’ ‘pews,’ ‘grottos.’ This is a necessity of pronunciation, resulting from our inability to pronounce with ease, or pleasure, a sharp and a flat mute together. In the oldest English, there were several plural end- ings, as, an, a, n. The first of these changing to es after the Norman Conquest, is now the only living suffix. As far as the spoken language is concerned it is per- haps more correct to say that the plural is formed by adding s (or z) to the singular. 5. Letters and figures, and words used merely as words, generally require an apostrophe ( ) before the plural sign s : Dot your %’s and cross your Vs. “ He employs too many olVs and me’s. 6. When a foreign word passes into common use, the tendency is to adopt the English plural: ‘'formula,'’ for- mulas,'’ ‘index,'’ ‘indexes,'’ ‘genius,^ ‘geniuses."’ 7. Sometimes there are two plurals with separate mean- ings: ‘index,'’ ‘indexes'’ (*fco a book), ‘indices'’ (algebraic signs); ‘genius,"’ ‘geniuses^ (men of power), ‘genii’ (spirits); ‘die,'’ ‘dies’ (stamps for coining), ‘dice'’ (for gaming). 8. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers; as ‘deer,'’ ‘sheep,'’ ‘fish'’ (also ‘fishes’). 9. Material, abstract, and proper nouns are rarely used except in the singular. When, however, there are differ- ent qualities of the same material (‘sugars,’ ‘wines’); or particular varieties of the quality (‘virtues,’ ‘beauties’); 84 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GIIAMMAE. or several persons either bearing the same name or resem- bling the one to whom the name belongs (^the Smiths/ ^the Miltons of onr century — such nouns take the iilu- ral form. 1 0. On the contrary some nouns are used in the plural only; as ‘vitals/ ‘annals/ ‘nujDtials/ ‘shears/ ‘tongs.^ 1 1. AVith a numeral, the plural sign is often omitted, as ‘ten sail,^ ‘a three-foot rule.'’ 12. Compound nouns^ add the j)lural sign to the prin- cipal noun, or noun described, unless (1) the parts are so closely allied that the meaning is incomplete till the whole is known; or (2) unless the suffix has, from long use, sunk into an insignificant appendage: as ‘ 50?is-in-law,'’ ‘house- toils’ ‘ going s-QvX,^ ‘ black-JiVfZs,'’ ‘ merchantme^i,'’ ‘red- coats’y but ‘handfuls,^ ‘forget-me-nots,^ ‘runaways.’ ‘ The Miss Browns ’ implies separate action; ‘^tlie Misses Brown ’ has a collective effect, and is the usual form. III. Case-form shows the bearing or relation of a noun to some other word in the sentence. 1. AYhen a noun is the subject of a sentence, it is said to be in the Nominative case. So called because it names the person or thing that does or suffers the action stated by the verb; as ‘Robert sings,’ ‘the song was sung.’ 2. When a noun stands for the object spoken to or addressed, it is said to be in the Vocative (or calling) case; as, ‘Our Father, who art in heaven.’ 3. AVhen a noun stands for the object of an action or is the object of a preposition, it is said to be in the Objec- tive case; as ‘Robert sang the song,’ ‘ He came from Lon- don.’ The objective is — ^ Names formed of several parts. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF HOUHS. 85 (1) Direct, when it denotes the object that directly receives the action of the verb ; as ‘ The cannon’s roar the death- like silence broke.’ (2) Indirect, when it denotes the object that indirectly receives the action ; as ‘ Give John the book ’ [= Give the book to John]; ‘He made the man a coat’ [= He made a coat for the man]. ^ 4. When a noun denotes possession or appurtenance, it is in the Possessive case. The possessive is formed — (1) By adding ’s to singulars, and to such plurals as do not end in s: ‘the hoy^s knife.’ Nouns of more than one syllable, however, with a sibilant ending, omit the pos- sessive s in order to avoid the disagreeable repetition of hissing sounds; as ‘for conscience’ sake,’ ‘the princess’ letter.’ The weight of usage is in favor of such forms as ‘James’s,’ ‘Charles’s,’ ‘Prince’s.’ (2) For a similar reason, plurals ending in s add, as a sign to the eye, the apostrophe only: ‘the ladies’ bonnets,’ ‘the cats’ tails.’ (3) In compounds, and in phrase-names, the sign is added at the end; as ‘the son-in-law’s house,’ ‘the king of Eng- land’s crown,’ ‘This is Tennyson the poet’s house.’" (4) In a series of words denoting common possession the sign may be added to the last only: '■ Robert and Harry’’ s boat.’ Separate possession requires the sign to be re- peated : ‘ Robert’s and Harry’’ s boats. ’ Tlie possessive sign follows the same rule as the plural with regard to being sounded as s or 2:, and to forming an additional syllable; as ‘ship’s/ ‘day’s/ ‘James’s/ ‘ church’s. ’ ’ In Latin and Old English we should call the direct object ihe Accusative, and the indirect the Dative. * Better, however; ‘This is the house of the poet Tennyson,’ or ‘This is the house of Tennyson the poet.’ 86 LESSON'S IN' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. This s is the remnant of a syllable es (after-ward ■written ‘ is one of several modes of forming the posses- sive case singular, or genitive, in earlier English, and is no-w usually distinguished from the ending of the nomi- native plural by an apostrophe. ‘^Apostrophe ^ means turned mvay, and shows that something has been omitted. The real omission is the letter e. English nouns have now hut one inflection for case. The uses of words are the same as they were a thousand years ago, but there has come down to us only one case- form — the possessive. OLD ENGLISH. MODERN ENGLISH. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Nom. hlaford, hlaford-as. Nom. lord, lords. Gen. hlaford-es, hlaford-a. Poss. of lord, or lord’s, lords’. Dat. hlaford-e, hlaford-wm. I. Obj.^ [to or for] lord, lords. Ace. hlaford, hlaford-as. D. Obj.^ lord, lords. Voc. hlaford, hlaford-as. Voc. [0] lord, lords. Inst. ^ hlaford-e, hlaford-?m. [by or with] lord, lords. The diagram used by the old grammarians to illustrate case -inflection explains the meaning of several terms em- ployed in this connection : A line 0 N, moving about the point or hinge 0, was supposed to fall or be bent downward from the perpendicu- lar position at IST to the horizontal position at Ah. The Instrumental. “Indirect objective. “Direct objective. PAKTS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF NOUHS. 87 various positions that the line assumed were taken to rep- resent the changes that the noun underwent to denote its office in the sentence. Each change, being denoted by a fall of the perpen- dicular, was called a case (Latin cado, I fall). The nominative was called the straight case. The others — Genitive, Dative, Accusative, Vocative, Ablative — were called, in contrast, the oblique cases, being denoted by the slanting lines. To give a noun these various forms successively was to decline it [de, down, and clino, I bend), and the process is therefore called Declension. EXERCISES. 1. In what several ways is the masculine form of nouns distinguished from the feminine ? 2. Give five examples of each method of distinguishing gender. 3. Give ten examples of nouns, five of them ending in er or or, that may be applied to either sex. 4. Give the rules for the formation of the plural number and posses- sive case. Also for the pronunciation of the sign ‘s.’ 5. Use in sentences the plural form of • pony shoe solo potato man-servants monkey salmon motto 6 pro and con Give the rule for the termination. + mouthful foreman hanger-on why 6. Correct the following plurals, and give reasons for correction: heros stratums cherubims dutys fiys negros calls cupsful vallies 88 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7. Write the singular of — genu radii beaux data foci memoranda crises genera phenomena 8. Write the singular and plural possessives of — German step-mother Moses mother-in-law Moses David wife ' salesman empress goose 9. Give the gender, number, and case of every noun in — ‘What are you good for, my brave little man? Answer that question for me, if you can.’ — Over the carpet the dear little feet Came with a patter to climb on the seat; Two merry eyes full of frolic and glee. Under their lashes looked up unto me; Two little hands, pressing soft on my face. Drew me down close in a loving embrace; Two rosy lips gave the answer so true, ‘Good to love you, mamma, — good to love you.’ 10. Show what words in the following sentences are in the objective case, as objects of action, expressed by transitive verbs in the active voice: (1) Govern the tongue. (2) Men build houses. (3) The farmer bought the horse that kicked the man. (4) Sheathe your sword. (5) The lightning struck the oak. (6) The wolf will devour the sheep (7) Man praises man. (8) Titus destroyed Jerusalem. (9) Give the poor man bread. (10) Will you lend Thomas a knife to cut his pencil? PAETS OP SPEECH — IHPLECTIOlSr OE HOUHS. 89 11. Show what words in the following sentences ai-e in the objective case, as objects of relation, expressed by a preposition; (1) Glad at heart from May to May. (2) A lion lay among the bushes at the river-side, (3) This author almost places before your eyes the island of Britain in the reign of Alfred. (4) Never dispute about trifles. (5) Look towards the sea. (6) Place the chair beside the table. (7) Throw a stone over the wall, 12. Point out the vocative eases in the following sentences: (1) You are quite right, Kobert. (2) Father, will you ask me to return? (3) Friends, Komans, countrymen, lend me your ears. (4) This is too bard work. Hardy, to last long. (5) England, with all thy faults, 1 love thee still — my country! (6) Plato, thou reasonest well. (7) My son, give me thine heart. 13. Point out the nouns which are different names for the same thing; and say to what case they stand in apposition: (1) The steamer Chancellor sails every day. (2) Coffee comes from Arabia, a country in Asia. (3) We have read Cicero the orator’s speeches. (4) Macaulay was historian, poet, and essayist. (5) This landscape is Foster the painter’s. (6) David slew the insulting giant, proud Goliath, the cham- pion of the Philistines. (7) The great traveler, Livingstone, explored the Zambesi, an African river. CHAPTEE XYIL PARTS OP SPEECH — INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS. The Pronouns, as they are the oldest parts of speech, have undergone much change, so that they now appear very unlike what they were originally. This fact, with others, is best shown by a comparison of the ancient in- flection of the personal pronouns with their modern forms: SINGULAR. Nom. Ic (I) thu (thou) he (he) hed (she) hit (it) Gen. min (mine) tMn (thy, thine) his (his) hire (her) his (its) Hat. (me) the (thee) him (him) hire (her) him (it) Ace. mec (me) thee (thee) hine (him) M (her) hit (it) Nom. ive (we) 9^ PLURAL. (ye) h% (they) Gen. user (our) edwer (your) heard (their) Hat. us (us) eow (you) him (them) Acc. usic (us) edwic (you) M (them) Thus it appears that I was once written ic (icli). Mine and thine were once the only possessives of the first and second person. The loss of n brought my into use. The second personal singular is now seldom used, except in poetical and solemn language. You, once only objective plural, has for general use taken the place of the old nominatives thou and ye. Note also the dative origin of him and her. The partial inflection of the Anglo- Saxon deflnite article will show the origin of she, they, etc. : PARTS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF PROHOUHS. 91 MASC. se SINGULAR. PEM. seo NEUT. thcet the she that KOM. thd PLURAL. POSS. DAT. thara thdm they their them ACC. thd He, heo, hit, was really a demonstrative, like the Latin is, ea, id = ‘that man/ ‘that woman/ ‘that tiling.^ It appears, moreover, that the original genitive of it was his. Hence Mandeville: ‘Of that cytee bereth the contree his name.^ The modern its seems to have been introduced about the year 1600. The so-called ‘possessive pronouns’ (my, thy, our, etc.) are seen to be nothing but the possessive cases, or genitives, of the personals. Ours, yours, hers, and theirs are double genitives, containing a genitive plural suffix r and a genitive singular suffix s. Some of the personals are used adjectively, as ‘you cruel men of Eome.’ This is true in particular of the possessive cases. Thus : (1) Pronominal use — This book is mine, thine, his, hers, yours, theirs. (2) Adjective use — This is my book, his book, her book, our book, etc. The demonstrative pronouns this and that are inflected only for number (plural, these and those); former and latter, for possessive case. The Anglo-Saxon demonstrative was thes (masc.), theos (fern.), this (neut.). Whence it ap- 92 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. pears that our Hhis^ was originally neuter. ^That^ is from the neuter of the definite article tlmt. ^ These'’ = O.E. thcBs, and ‘'those’ = O.E. thds. The interrogative pronouns are best exhibited by the ancient infiection of ‘'who’: MASC. AND DEM. NEUT. Nom. hwa (who) hwaet (what) Gen. hwaes (whose) hwtes (whose) Dat. hwam (whom) hwtnm (whom) Ace, hwone (whom) hwmt (what) Inst. hwi [why] hwi [why] "What, we see, is the neuter of who. It always refers to things when used strictly as a pronoun. “Whose is the possessive of ‘what’ as well as of ‘who/i as stated elsewhere (p. 48). Which, when interrogative, is used of persons or things. The relatives, with the exception of ‘ that’ and ‘as,’ are merely the old interrogatives. Eelative who is infiected like interrogative ‘who,’ — ‘whose,’ ‘whom.’ Which at present relates by preference to neuter antecedents. An early instance of the relative use of what is seen in — Ne r^edde ge thset hwEet David dyde = Have ye not read that what David did? That, originally a neuter singular, now agrees with singu- lar and plural antecedents of all genders. Who-ever, what-ever, which-ever, have an indefinite force. The indefinites, with the exception of ‘one,’ ‘other,’ and ‘another,’ are not inflected. Of these, the first and second form regular plurals, and all form regular pos- sessives. 'Consequently there is nothing to justify the restriction of ‘whose ’to persons. Compare ‘his,’ once the possessive of ‘he’ and ‘it.’ PAETS OF SPEECH — IFTFLECTIOH OF PEOHOUHS. 93 Strictly^ person-forms belong only to personal pronouns. Nouns are to be considered of the third person, unless used vocatively or in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second: I, John, am going. Thou, John, must go. A pronoun, being a kind of substitute, assumes the person, number, and gender of the noun for which it stands. Its case is determined by its relation in the sen- tence — the same, however, as the noun would have in its place. EXERCISES. 1. Write sentences containing the compound personals — itself himself herself myself thyself ourselves themselves yourself Tell of what person, number, gender, and case each is, and why. 2. Look in the dictionary for the meaning of ‘ self ’ ; then tell how the parts of ‘itself,’ ‘ yourselves,’ etc., are related. 3. Write or find sentences containing the compound ^ relatives, and explain the person, number, gender, and case of each. 4. Distinguish between the emphatic and reflexive pronouns; also show how.they are formed : (1) They ruined themselves. (2) I saw myself. (3) You did it yourself. (4) I hurt myself. (5) They themselves caused the accident. (6) We taught ourselves grammar. (7) The venture paid itself. (8) You injure yourselves. (9) The countess herself spoke to me. (10) The men set themselves to raise the weight. (11) Cato killed himself. (12) We ourselves went to the shore. (13) The ship righted herself. 94 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 5. Point out the relative pronoun and its antecedents in each of the following sentences; also tell the number, gender, person, and case of the relative pronouns: ^ (1) The master who taught me. (2) He fed the cows that surrounded him. (3) The boy whose book was lost. ^(4) The staff which Charles used. (5) The freeihan whom the truth makes free. (6) I who teach you. (7) The friend to whom he introduced me. (8) He says what he thinks. (9) A religion whose origin is divine. (10) The lady and the gentleman whom we met. (ll^j The horse whose leg was broken, (12) The army which was re- treating. (13) Think on whatever is honest. (14) The house which fell. 6. Show whether ‘ that ' is used as a relative, an adjective, or a con- junction in the following sentences, stating the reason in each instance : (1) That is the same man that came yesterday. (2) He wishes that he were rich. (3) Androcles and the lion that fol- lowed him. (4) It is repprted that that ship you named is lost. (5) The meekest man that ever lived. (6) That lofty tower that crowns the distant hill. (7) Speak, that all may hear. (8) That tongue of his that bade the Ho- mans. (9) Come, that you may show me that picture that you say Turner painted. (10) All that wealth e’er gave. 7. In this exercise pick out the pronouns and adjectives, and classify them : (1) Who wrote this book? (2) Whose flocks are these? (3) He told me to whom he had given the book. (4) To whom do we owe allegiance ? (5) From what source springs all our woe ? (6) Who that loves flowers would grudge to water them? (7) In which city do you prefer to live — Edin- burgh or Glasgow? (8) Can he love the whole who loves no part? (9) Which is the better likeness? (10) Whom have we here ? PARTS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF PRONOUNS. 95 8. Some of the following are correct, some are incorrect. Explain the errors, and make the necessary corrections : (1) Among the books are octavoes and quartoes. (2) The cow jumped into his brother’s Henry’s field. (3) The cap- tain’s of the steamer’s wife was sick. (4) They are called Methodist’s. (5) Nebulas are called star-dust. (6) I saw the two Mrs. Clark. (7) The Moses’ are few. (8) The boy’s hat was lost. (9) Him and me are going home. (10) It is them. (11) Who did you see?;ri-(12) Tell me whom is going. (13) Those which are going should be prompt. (14) This is the man whom we want. (15) Every man should try to do their best. (16) I am the man who will do it. (17) He is ours old friend. (18) Those what sow will reap. (19) The earth is our mother, and we should love it. (20) The dog caught a lamb and killed her. (21) This ribbon is her. (22) Did you get them forks? (23) I wish I were she. (24) They that are faithful he will reward. (25) Who say the people that I am? (26) Be sure to tell whom you are. (27) This was Casper’s and Fannie’s book. (28) I dined at Green’s my old friend and schoolmate’s. (29) Wolsey’s the Cardi- nal’s career ended in disgrace. (30) Whom do you sup- pose it was? (31) Is she taller than me? (32) She was angry, and him too. (33) Did you think it was us? (34) Us boys had a good time. (35) It is neither Casper nor Fannie’s book. (36) Can you learn from such as her? (37) For the king, his brother’s sake. OHAPTEE XVm. PAETS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. Adjectives — except pronoun adjectives — now have no inflection to mark gender, number, and case; that is, of whatever gender, number, or case the noun modified may be, no change is made in the form of the adjective: A good boy. A good girl. A good stick. Good horses. The good die young. In such examples as the last, however, in which the adjective is used substantively, it is commonly treated as plural. The adjective is inflected only for comparison — a variation of form by which things are compared with one another in respect to some common quality possessed in different degrees. The degrees are : 1 . Positive (as in great ’) ; which shows the quality of an object without special reference to any other object. It is the simplest form of the adjective. 2. Comparative (as in ^ greater^); which shows that, of tiuo things or sets of things compared, one possesses the quality in a higher or lower degree than the other. It is formed by adding er to the positive. 96 PAETS OP SPEECH — IHPLECTIOH OF ADJECTIVES. 97 3. Superlative (as in ^ greatest^); used when more than two things are compared. It is formed by adding est to the positive. (1) When the positive ends in a silent e, r and st only are added; as ‘nice,’ ‘nice-r,’ ‘nice-st.’ (2) When the positive ends in y (not preceded by a vowel), y is changed into i; as ‘holy,’ ‘holi-er,’ ‘holi-est.’ (3) A final consonant preceded by a short vowel is usually doubled; as ‘hot,’ ‘hot-t-er,’ ‘hot-t-est.’ Words of more than two syllables, and most words of two, are compared by means of the adverbs more and most : ‘ He is the more learned of the two ^ He is the mos^ learned of all.'’ This makes the pronunciation easier and the sound more agreeable. Any adjective may be compared in this manner, either to emphasize the quality or to please the ear; as ^ It is most true.'’ To express a descending comparison, less and least may be used: ‘'His was the less meritorious painting of the two'’; ‘His was the least meritorious painting of all." Such phrases, however, are not inflections, though they express differences of degree. Degrees' are also expressed by the use of adverbs : ‘rather bad,'’ ‘too bad,'’ ‘very bad.’ Some words are irregularly compared: Positive. Comparative. latter, later nigher (near) nearer Superlative. last, latest nighest, next nearest eldest, oldest (1) late nigh near old elder, older LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAK. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. (2) good better best bad ) ill [ worse worst little less (lesser) least much j more most many j 1 Some words. used now as adjectives, now as adverbs. have comparative and superlative forms ending in more and most, affixed to the positive or comparative: fore former foremost [further] furthermore furthermost in inner inmost, innermost out outer outmost, outermost [ut] utter utmost, uttermost up upper uppermost under undermost hind hinder hindmost, hindermost In a few words of irregular form/ the origin and force of the comparative have been forgotten, and the words have been inflected a second time. Hence the double comparatives ^ lesser^ (Hess^), ^more'’ (^mo'*), ^ nearer.^ With these may he compared Shakespeare^s rhetorical intensives, ^more fairer/ “"most nnkindest cut of all.^ Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of degrees are not logically comparable certain fluid empty circular perfect universal dead continual void extreme supreme yearly eternal round French 1 Yet, in ordinary talk and in literature, it is not uncommon to compare Buch adjectives as ‘ certain,’ ‘ round,’ and ‘ perfect,’ as expressing approximate meanings. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF ADJECTIVES. 99 The demonstratives ^this'’ and ‘that'’ are, when adjec- tives, inflected for number. The indeflnites, ‘ other ^ and ‘ another,'’ when pronouns, are inflected for case and num- ber: ‘for another’s sake," ‘for the sake of others.’ EXEBCISES. 1. Write the comparison of — bright hard plentiful wise witty proud active sensible angry 2. Give the descending comparisons of ‘little’ and ‘selfish.’ 3. What parts of speech are ‘ less,’ ‘least,’ ‘more,’ ‘most,’ in — Had he been less venturesome he would have lived. He was the least diligent in the room. He was the more valiant. To advance was the most dangerous course. Write sentences in which each of these words shall be used as an adjective and a noun. 4. Point out the proper, compound, and verbal adjectives in the following : (1) Birth-day present. (2) Seven-hilled city. (3) Cornish coast. (4) Kunning stream. (5) April showers. (6)^ Steel pens. (7) Growing corn. (8) Blood-red field. (9) ■ British navy. (10) Hazel-eyed Sarah. (11) He wears a gold pin in his satin scarf. (12) The rosy-cheeked boy swings. (13) Constantine was the first Christian em- peror. (14) Cloud-capped towers. (15) The village mur- mur rose. (16) He stood on the Alpine brow. (17) ^ Half-forgotten recollections crowd upon the mind% (18) i The flashing mass foams. 5. Where it is possible, express the comparison in a different way; in other instances, show what degree of quality is expressed by the adjective; 100 LESSOJnS in ENGLISH GEAMMAK. (1) My uncle is not so wealthy as my father. (2) We heard a highly instructive lecture. (3) The French are more lively than the English. (4) The fruit is sourish. (5) He is not so industrious as he should be. (6) That was a very kind action. (7) He was as good as his word. (8) He showed greater friendship to me than to you. (9) The Indians are extremely indolent. (10) The water is brackish. (11) Too warm a coat. (12) Their garden is larger than ours. 6. Express in three different ways the fact that Henry is taller than Harry. 7. Explain the errors in the following (where there are such), and make the corrections: (1) I don’t like those kind of apples. (2) Neither of the four racers was very swift. (3) Which of the two is the prettier? (4) Put those books on the table. (5) No metal is so useful as iron. (6) A more surer punishment. (7) Which of the two is the best? (8) Make the line more vertical. (9) China is more populous than any nation on the globe. (10) I measured it with a two-feet rule. (11) The room is ten feet square. (12) Those sort of people never prosper. (13) Eemove this ashes. (14) Profane swearing is the most inexcusable of all other vices. (15) Of the two, this is the more preferable. (16) He has more enthusiasm than sense. (17) It was the less valuable of the six. OHAPTEE XIX. PARTS OF SPEECH— INFLECTION OF ADVERBS. The only inflection of Adverbs is comparison. The signiflcation of some does not admit of degrees; as ‘^now/ ‘'then/ ^here/ ‘^thirdly/ ‘immediately.’ Such as can be compared^ form a comparative and a superlative degree in the manner of adjectives: often oftener oftenest pleasantly more pleasantly most pleasantly pleasantly less pleasantly least pleasantly Being usually longer, they more rarely admit the use of er and est. A few coincide with the irregular adjectives: well better best ill worse worst much more most forth further furthest far farther farthest^ late later latest [rathe-] rather rathest EXERCISES. 1. Write sentences in which at least ten words taken from the list of irregular adverbs shall be used as two parts of speech, neither of which shall be adverbial. '^0.'K.feor,fyrre,fyrrest. The comparative should be ‘farrer.’ The has crept in from a false analogy with ‘further.’ O. E. hrathe, early. ‘ Late and rathe.’’— Piers Plowman. 101 102 LESSOJTS liq- ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 2. Pick out the adverbs, normal and abnormal ; give the sub-class of each ; and compare such as admit of comparison : (1) We were clearly and particularly shown how the work was done. (2) The birds sing sweetly. (3) We often resolve; we rarely fulfil. (4) Still waters are commonly deepest. (5) He has been much deceived. (6) They have been long absent. (7) He spoke with a clear voice. (8) They showed us the work with much patience. (9) He was here yesterday, and will return to-day at two o’clock. (10) He labored excessively upon his task ; it was there- fore well done. (11) On all occasions she behaved with propriety. (12) Mentally and physically we are curiously and wonderfully formed. (13) The task is already more than half done. (14) First, I am to show the nature, and, secondly, the importance of this virtue. (15) I shall for that reason warmly befriend him. 3. Show whether the words in italics are used as adverbs or pre- positions : (1) The debate went on. (2) Let us go down the river. (3) Doivn, down, they go, the Gael above, Fitz- James below. (4) He stamped on the floor. (5) Ice came floating by. (6) Tell us about the war. (7) A good south wind sprung up behind. (8) He threw the water abo^it. (9) The giants piled Ossa above Pelion. (10) Behind the horseman sat black Care. (11) Pluck off the golden apple. (12) Gunpowder was placed in the cellars below the house. (13) Stand by my side. (14) All is lost but honor. 4. In the following sentences point out the conjunctive adverbs, and explain their uses : (1) I do not know where the place is. (2) The paper holds attention while I read. (3) When the time comes, the men will be found where they ought to be. (4) I asked not whence he came nor whither he was going. (5) The engineer explained how it was done. (6) ‘ Whence is it? ’ he asked. (7) Whither I go, ye can not come. CHAPTER XX. PARTS OP SPEECH — INFLECTION OP VERBS. I. VERBALS. , Because they are so much used in making up the forms of the verb, we shall speak first of those derived words which we have called verbals. These are of two kinds : 1. Participlei — a verbal adjective, sharing the prop- erties of adjective and verb: (1) Present, or Active — the form in ing, which denotes present and continuing action or state; as ‘sing-ing,’ ‘giv-ing.’ (2) Past, ox Passive — the forms in ed and en which usually denote completed action; as ‘wish-ed,’ ‘give-en.’ 2. Infinitive^ — a verbal noun, merely naming the action or* state expressed by the verb: (1) Present, or Root Infinitive — the simplest form of the verb; as ‘read,’ ‘ write.’ Its usual sign is the preposition to; as, ^to read,’ ‘to write.’ (2) Participial Infinitive — the form in ing; as, ‘read-ing, writing.’ The participial infinitive is identical in form with the present participle, but differs from it in having the con- struction, not of an adjective, but of a noun; as, ‘By singing, ‘birds delight us.’ ^ Latin pars, part, and capere, to take. -Latin infinitus, not limited — not limited to a subject, but naming the action in an indefinite way. 103 104 LESSONS IN ENOLISH GEAMMAE. II. AUXILIARIES. Our Saxon forefathers never put ^to^ before the infini- tive proper. Instead of to drink/ for example, they would say drinc-«^.^ As the suffixes fell into disuse, they were replaced by prepositions; and, instead of saying, like drinc-«^>^,^ or like walk-e?^,’ people began to say, ^I like to drink, ^ ‘^I like to walk.’ Some verbs, however, were so often companions to the infinitive that it was found unnecessary to insert to.’ Hence we have such forms as — I bade him \ / I ordered him I let him 1 made him >- come — ■ I permitted him ' ^ I compelled him I can / I am able I dare 1 1 I venture I may / \ I am alloAved 1 must , > come = / I am forced 1 shall j 1 am sure I should , 1 1 I ought I will / \ I am resolved I to come. to come. Most of these verbs have thus lost their original inde- pendence, and have sunk into mere indications of the time of an action or the manner of its assertion; as, ‘1 may go/ H s/ialt go.’ Words which are thus allies, or helps, are called Auxiliaries. The verb-auxiliaries are — (1) Emphatic: do {did); as, ‘I do think so,’ ‘I did see it.’ (2) Passive : be {am, teas, been) ; as, ‘ lie tvas defeated.’ (3) Tense [time]; bave {had), shall, will; as, ‘I shall go,’ ‘I had gone.’ (4) Mode [manner]; may {might), can {could), should, umdd, must: as, ‘ I may go,’ ‘ I must go.’ (5) Infinitive: to. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF VERBS. 105 The word that is helped by the auxiliary is called principal. Their combination is regarded as a unit. Thus, ^ might have been given/ a verb-phrase, is a verb. Do, be, have and will are sometimes principal: Do this. I did it. Be silent. I am [= I exist]. I shall he. I have it. He willed me his dog.^ III. PERSON AND NUMBER. A verb may vary its form to a certain extent, in conse- quence of difEerence in the person of its subject: (1) First — I walk [or am walk-ing].® (2) Second — You walk [or thou walk-est, art walking]. (3) Third — He walk-s [or he walk-eth, is walking]. The form may be varied in consequence of difEerence in the number of its subject: (1) Singidar — [See (1), (2), and (3) above.] (2) Plural — We, you, or they walk [or are walking]. Hence verbs are said to agree with their subjects in person and' number. ^ IV. TENSE. The time of an action may be — (1) Present — I walk [do or am walking]. (2) Past — I walk-ed [did walk, or was walking]. (3) Future — I sliall [or will] walk [shall or will he walking]. ^ Let the pupil now be given exercises 1, S, 3, and 4, pp. 121, 122. 2 Let the pupil here give, as in (1), (2), and (3), the person-forms of a list of verbs. => Let the person-forms of the given list be put in the plural. 106 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. As ‘ tense means time, (1) is called Present Tense, (2) Past Tense, and (3) Future Tense. The form of the verb made by using ^ do and ^ did ^ is called the emphatic. The forms including the present participle, since they indicate the continuance of the act, are called progressive. To put (1), (2), and (3) in the plural, no changes are required except those of ^ am^ to ^ are and was^ to ‘^were.'’ Old or solemn forms — (1) ‘^thon walk-est, art walking,’ ‘ he walk-eth (2) ‘ thou did-st walk, was-t or wer-t walk- ing’; (3) ^thou shal-t or wil-t walk, or be walking.’ Then there are three other forms which express an action as comjpleted (or inr/ecteP) in the present, in the past, or in the future: (4) Present Perfect — I, you, they, have walked (or have been walking); he has walked (or has been walking), (5) Past Perfect ^ — I, you, he, they, had walked (or had been walking). (6) Future Perfect — I, you, he, they, shall have walked (or shall have been walking). The ordinary perfects consist of the past participle walked ’ and the auxiliaries have ’ for the present, ^ had ’ for the past, and shall [or will] have’ for the future. The progressive forms employ the past participle ‘been.’ The solemn forms call for no change except from ‘have’ to ‘has-t,’ from ‘had’ to ‘had-st,’ and from ‘shall’ or ‘will’ to ‘shal-t’ or ‘wil-t,’ for the second person; from ‘ has ’ to ‘ ha-th ’ for the third. 1 Latin temims^ French temps. ®This is known also as the Pluperfect, while the progressive form of the simple Past is known as the Imperfect. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF VEEBS. 107 Along with the simple or present infinitive ‘to walk/ we have the perfect, ‘ to have walked ^ (known also as the present perfect), and the corresponding progressive forms ‘ to be walking,^ ‘to have been walking/ Along with the present participle, ‘ walking,'* we have not only the simple past ‘walked,^ but the compound forms: perfect, ‘having walked'* (by some calledperfect, by others past-perfeet) and progressive, ‘having been walking/ 1 V. MODE. The verb may express the action as a fact; 2,^ ^doubtful or obligatory; or as commanded: that is, the mode or manner of expressing the action may be — (1) Indicative — He walk-s (walk-ed, was walking.) ( Present — He may, can or must walk. Past — He might, could, would, should (2) Potential — - walk. Present Perfect — He may have walked, etc. Past Perfect — He might have walked, etc. (3) Imperative — Walk, Be walking. To make the progressive form of (2), insert ‘be^ before the present participle for the present, and ‘ been ^ for the perfects: ‘ may be walking,'* ‘ may have been walking,^ etc. Mode (1) has the six tenses, (2) has four; and (3) has one — the command is necessarily present, the jgerformance is necessarily future. The central idea of the indicative is actuality; of the potential, possibility, necessity, or conditionality; of the imperative, volition. The so-called snbjnnctive, as a separate mode, is so nearly lost in our language that we ^ Let the verbs be expressed, through the several persons and numbers, first in the tenses of (1), (2), and (3), then in those of (4), (5), and (6). 108 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. have excluded it from the classification. i It is a source of infinite confusion to maintain it; since (1) there is no peculiar form for it; (2) there is no peculiar meaning for it, it being indicative or potential in meaning, ac- cording as it has the indicative or potential form. The subjunctive present may be regarded as a shortened future tense. ^If I go/ “"if I be,'’ mean in fact, ‘^if I shall go,^ ‘^if I shall be.^ The past tense, except in the verb to be, is like the indicative: if I went,'’ if he went.'’ And there is no sufficient reason why ^ if I were,'’ ^ if he were,'’ may not be classed as potential: If Hwere [it should be] done when ’tis done, then Hivere [it would be] well It were [should be] done quickly. - VI. VOICE. Again, if the subject names the doer of the action, the verb is said to be in the active voice, as ‘He loves if it names the object of the action — the person or thing acted upon — the verb is said to be in the passive voice, as ‘He is loved.’ Only transitive verbs may thus be put in two forms. An intransitive verb may, by help of a preposition, be used in the passive voice: ’ The subjunctive, as a separate mode, is almost lost and out of mind in our language.— Whitney. The machinery is too great for the occasion; we find that conditionality can be given by a conjunction — ‘if’ or ‘though ’ — and need not be repeated in the verb.— -Sam. Formerly the present subjunctive was used in expressing present time ; but at present it is properly used only when reference is had to future time. Even then, it is regarded by the most learned grammarians as an elliptical form of the potential.— yweec?. 2 Let now the given exercises be expressed in the tenses of the potential and imperative modes. PAETS OP SPEECH — IPTPLECTION OF VEEBS. 109 The sun shines on the sea. The sea is shone-on by the sun. Some intransitives have a passive form, but are not in the passive voice: I am come [=; I have come]. He is gone [= He has gone]. To make the passive voice, place before the or passive participle the proper form of the auxiliary be : Present Tense. Indicative Mode. Past Tense. Future Tense. I am I 1 I was ] I ] He is loved or He was loved or He We are i ^ being We were i ^ being We [ You are loved. You were loved. You They are J They were J They J shall be loved. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Future Perfect. I 1 I 1 I ] You 1 have been had been He We I loved. 1 loved. We [ They J You You He . . has been loved. They J They J Present Tense. I He Potential Mode. Past Tense. Present Perfect. shall or will have been loved. Past Perfect. I 1 might. I ] may, can. I ] might. He 1 could, He or must He could, would. We ^ should. We 1 ^ have We j ^ or should You or would You been You have been They J 1 be loved. They J loved. They J ' loved. Imperative Mode. Be loved. Infinitives. Present: To be loved. Perfect: To have been loved. Participles. Pmen;; (progressive) : Being loved. Past: Loved, having been loved. ^ ’ Let the pupil be drilled in changing transitive verbs from the active to the passive, and from the passive to the active. Let him also be required to construct progressive forms for both voices, solemn forms included. 110 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. VII. CONJUGATION. To state or bring together all the forms of a verb, so as to show its persons, numbers, tenses, modes, and voices, is to conjugate it. There are in English two conjugations — the Strong and the Weak. The first is seen in shake, I shook, I am shaken^; the second in ^ I love, I loved, I am loved. ^ To the one division belong verbs which form the past tense by changing the vowel, as ‘ speak,'’ s]3oke to the other, those which form it by adding ed, d, or t, as ‘plant-ed,'’ ‘'move-d,^ ^wep-t.'’ The principle of this clas- sification is, that the power of varying a word by internal change implies a certain innate vitality not possessed by roots capable of being varied only by the addition of exter- nal elements. The Strong conjugation is the older. The verbs belonging to it are all of Saxon origin. Derivative words, and words adopted from other tongues, belong to the more modern, or Weak. This is now regarded as regular; while the older — once the common — is called irregular. Notice carefully that a strong verb adds nothing to the present tense in order to form the past: ^ Got,’ the past of ^get,’ is strong; but ‘tol-d,’ the past of ^tell,’ is weak. The past or passive participle once ended in en for all strong verbs, but this suffix has in many cases fallen away; as ^ drunk’ [ = ^ drunk-en ’] : When strong verbs form their past participles in ed (d or t),i they become weak: strong, ^ He has wow??, ’; weak, Hie has ??zowoc?.’ See page 131 for origin of tiris ending. PAETS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF VEEBS. Ill The Principal Parts of a verb are the^jre^e^i^ indica- tive (root)j, imst indicative (known also as preterite), and i\iQ past participle; as ^ write/ ^ wrote/ written ‘'serve/ ^served/ ‘served/ These are called ‘principal/ because the whole conjugation of any verb is based upon them. Let pupils be required to make short sentences illus- trating the proper use of the principal parts of verbs in the following lists: ^ (1) List OF Strong or Irregular Verbs. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past PaTticlple. abide abode abode am y/ was been arise arose arisen awake •' -awoke, awaked ^ awoke, awaked bake baked [baken],^ baked bear (bring forth) bore [bare] born bear (carry) bore [bare] borne beat t beat beaten begin began begun behold beheld beholden, beheld bid bade, bid bidden, bid bind bound bound bite bit bitten, bit blow blew blown break broke [brake] broken [broke] burst burst burst chide chid [chode] chidden, chid choose chose chosen cleave (split) clove, cleaved, cleft cloven, cleaved, cleft cling clung clung climb [clomb] climbed climbed cling clung clung come came come » Eegular forms in italics. 2 Old forms in brackets. 112 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. Present Tense. crow do draw drink drive eat fall ^ fight find fling fly forbear forget forsake freeze get give go grave grind grow hang heave hew hold know lade lie (recline) melt mow ride ring rise rive run Past Tense. crew, crowed did drew drank drove ate fell fought found flung flew forbore forgot forsook froze got gave went graved ground grew hung, hanged hove, heaved hewed held knew laded lay melted moived rode [rid] rang, rung rose rived ran Past Participle. crown, crowed done drawn drunk driven eaten fallen fought found flung flown forborne forgotten, forgot forsaken frozen got, gotten given gone graven, graved ground grown hung, hanged heaved hewn, heived held [holden] known laden, laded lain molten, melted mown, mowed ridden [rid] rung risen riven, rived run see PARTS OP SPEECH — lETPLECTIOEr Present Tense, Past Tense. seethe sod, seethed shake shook shaved shaved shear sheared shine shone, shined shoot shot shrink shrunk [shrank] sing sung [sang] sink sunk [sank] sit sat slay slew slide slid sling slung slink slunk smite ’ smote sow solved speak spoke [spake] spin spun spring sprung [sprang] stand stood steal stole sting stung stink stank strew strewed stride strode, strid strike struck strive strove strow strowed swear swore [sware] swell swelled swim swum [swam] swing swung take took tear tore [tare] thrive throve, thrived throw threw OF VERBS. 113 Past Particijile. sodden, seethed shaken shaven, shaved shorn, sheared shone, shined shot shrunk [shrunken] sung sunk sat slain slid, slidden slung slunk smitten sown, sowed spoken spun sprung stood stolen stung stunk [strewn] strewed stridden, strid struck [stricken] striven [strown] strowed sworn swollen, swelled swum swung taken torn thriven, thrived thrown 114 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAE. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. tread trod trodden, trod wake woke, waked woke, waked wear wore worn weave wove woven win won won wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote (2) List op Weak Veebs. SEEMINGLY IREEGULAK. (a) written Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. bereave bereft, bereaved bereft, bereaved beseech besought besought bring brought brought burn burnt, burned burnt, burned buy bought bought catch caught caught cleave cleft cleft creep crept crept deal dealt dealt dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed dwell dwelt dwelt feel felt felt flee fled fled have had had hide hid hid, hidden keep kept kept kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled lay laid laid lean leant, leaned leant, leaned learn learnt, learned learnt, learned leap leapt, leaped leapt, leaped leave left left lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant PARTS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF VERBS. 115 Present Tense. pay rap say seek sell shoe sleep spell stay sweep teach tell think weep work Present Tense. bend bleed breed build cast clothe cost cut feed gild gird hit hurt knit lead let light meet Past Tense. paid rapt said sought sold shod slept spelt, spelled staid, stayed swept taught told thought wept wrought, worked ip) Past Tense. bent bled bred built, huilded cast clad, clothed cost cut fed gilt, gilded girt, girded hit hurt knit led let lit, lighted met Past Participle. paid rapt said sought sold shod slept spelt, spelled staid, stayed swept taught told thought wept wrought, worked Past Participle. bent bled bred built, builded cast clad, clothed cost cut fed gilt, gilded girt, girded hit hurt knit led let lit, lighted met 116 LESSO]!fS m EN^GLISH GRAMMAE. Present Tense. Past Tense. Past Participle. put, put put read read read rend rent rent rid rid rid send sent sent set set set shed shed shed shred shred shred shut shut shut slit slit slit speed sped sped sjoend spent spent spit spit [spat] spit split split split spread spread spread sweat sweat sweat thrust thrust thrust wet wet, wetted wet, wetted whet whet, whetted VIII. SIMPLE3 FORMS. whet, ivhetted An English verb is conjugated partly by inflection (change in its own form), but chiefly with the help of auxiliaries. The inflections are made by vowel-change and by suffixes. The latter are — est (-st, -t), of past and present indicative, second singular, * old form: ha-st. s, of present indicative third singular : ha-s. eth (-th), of present indicative, third singular, old form : ha-th. ed (-d, -t,), of past indicative and past participle of weak verbs: ha-d. ing, of present participles: hav-ing. en (-n), of past participles of strong verbs : bee-n. Both vowel-change and endings are seen in ^write,^ ^wrote,^ ^ written,^ ^ writes,^ ^writeth/ ^writest,^ ^ wrotest/ ‘ writing.^ PAETS OP SPEECH — INFLECTION OP VEEBS. 117 IX. COMPOSITE FORMS. The conjugation of the copula contains three distinct roots — am, be, and luas, all of which appear in the prin- cipal parts, ‘^am/ ‘’was/ ^been.^ The eleven distinct forms found in the full conjugation of this verb are — am was be art wast being is were been are wert With the omission of the old forms, SO seldom used. the scheme is: Indicative Mode. Present Tense. Past Tense. Future Tense. I am I 1 1 I He is He i was. You We ] We ] 1 He 1 shall or will be. You 1 are. You 1 were. We They J They j 1 They Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Future Perfect. I 1 I I You 1 have been. You You shall or will We He ■ had been. He have been. They J We We He . . has been. They They Potential Mode. Present Tense. Past Tense. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. I ] may, 1 might. I 1 1 may, can. I "I might. You can, or 1 could. You 1 or must You could. He I must ( would. He 1 have He 1 would, or We be. should be. been. We 1 should They J 1 They They J 1 They J have been. Imperative Mode. Be. Infinitives. Present; To be. Perfect: To have been. Participles. Present; Being. Past: Been. 118 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. Do is conjugated in all of its parts as a transitive verb. As auxiliary, it is used (1) to express emphasis — ‘Do give it to him (2) in negative and interrogative forms — ^ I did not see him/ ‘Did you believe it?^ Have is the auxiliary of perfect tenses, and expresses finished action — ‘1 have said,'’ ^He had spoken.'’ As principal or independent verb, it expresses possession — ^ I have one,'’ ‘We had some.'’ "Will meant originally to desire, to wish. In this sense it is still an independent verb: I will be cleansed. She willed me to leave my base vocation. Its past, or preterite, once wilede, became early ivolede, and this led to ‘ would, ’ with the silent 1. • Shall (from sceal, sculon, present, and sceolde, sceoldon, preterite) appears to have once signified to oive. Hence Chaucer: ‘ For by the faithe I shall to God.’ Whence we learn the meaning and the derivation of ‘should.'’ May (earlier either may or mo^v) is from Saxon magan, which had the force of the Latin posse, ‘to be able.'’ Wyclilfe writes: ‘ The great dai of his wrath the cometh and who shall mow [be able to] stand?’ The regular past was mought, the ancestor of our ‘ might. ’ Can, expressing power, has a similar history: present, can; past cuthe. The following are instances of its force as Tcnow: PARTS OF SPEECH — IHFLECTIOH OF VERBS. 119 I lerne song, I can but smal grammere. — Chaucer. His fellow taught him homeward prively Fro day to day, tell he coude it by rote. — Ibid. Such is the descent of ‘ could.-’ Must comes from the old English moste, past tense of " the verb moian, ^to be able/ ‘'be obliged.’ It is no-w used in all persons and tenses to denote necessity and obligation: For as the fisse, if it be dry. Mote, in defaute of water, die. — Gower. Men mosten given silver to pore [poor] freres [friars]. — Chaucer. It may not be amiss to add that from the Old Eng- lish infinitive agan (present dli, past dhte) arise the mod- ern owe and ought, -which have been separated by the two-fold sense of their original, — I am a debtor, and I am under a moral obligation. The separation has given to the former the modern preterite ^owed/ and has made the latter both preterite and present. Thus: All England dhte for to knowe. — Old Political Song. I owe to be baptized of thee, and thou comest to me. — Wycliffe. Auxiliaries combine with — (1) Participles: present or active, ‘I am writing'; past or passive, ‘ It was written.' (2) Root-infinitives : ‘ I may, can, will [to] write '; ‘ I do [to] write.' (3) Infinitives and participles : ‘ I shall [to] be writing, or shall [to] have written'; ‘It shall [to] have been written.' An inspection of the compound forms shows that the so- called auxiliary is the real asserting word. Thus the true verbs in (1) are ‘am’ and ‘was/ each supplemented by a 120 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. verbal adjective. In (2), *^1 do write I do or perform this thing, namely [to] write. ‘'I shall or will write I owe or decide [to] write. ^May write/ ‘^can write/ should write/ etc., may likewise be each resolved into indicative verb and infinitive complement. ‘Shall have been written,^ in (3), is composed of the word ‘ shall as base, and the perfect infinitive passive, ‘ [to] have been written, as object complement. Or it may be said to con- sist of the indicative fntnre-perfect copula and the com- plementary participle ‘written.^ It thus aj)pears (see also page 104) that the potential signs, ‘may,'’ ‘can,’ etc., are in themselves indicatives; but the verb-phrases which they help to form are, since they signify especially the possibility of an action, properly said to be of the potential mode. Besides the composite forms of conjugation, progres- sive and emphatic, already noticed, there is au inter- rogative, which places the subject after the first auxiliary: ‘Does he sing?’ ‘Will you take this?’ ‘May he have arrived ? ’ The present perfect indicative represents a past action or event with reference to present time: ‘I have eaten my dinner.’ The past perfect indicative represents a past action or event as finished at or before “‘a certain past time : ‘ I had eaten my dinner before you arrived.’ The future perfect indicative represents an action or event as finished at or before a certain future time: ‘I shall have eaten my dinner before you arrive.’ PAETS OP SPEECH — INFLECTION OF VEEBS. 121 The present potential implies either present or future time: ^It may be raining [now]^; 'I may go to town/ The past potential denotes — (1) Obligation absolutely : ‘He should be thankful.’ (2) Habit or custom : ‘ He would he absent a week at a time.’ (3) Past ability: ‘He waZ/fc yesterday.’ (4) Present or future ability: ‘ I could do it now,’ ‘ I could write to you next week, ’‘HI should write to you,’ etc.; ^Should I [or were I to] leave to-day, I should return next week.’ EXERCISES. 1. Pick out the verbals, explain how they are used, and give the sub- class of each : (1) She is fond of reading. (2) He loves to describe an event as present, (3) He, loved by all, loved everybody. (4) lie is charged with having stolen a horse. (5) I dare do all that may become a man. (6) Let Henry go. (7) Seeing the man approach, she retraced her steps. (8) Made cheerfully, her promise made him happy. 2. Make sentences containing verbals formed from the following words, and show how they are used : help study hope go grow recite plow enjoy twinkle see declare come inquire learn suffer plot 3. Tell whether the words in italics are auxiliaries or principal : (1) 1 thinlc, therefore I am. (2) I learn that you have removed from town. (3) How does he? (4) I will go. (5) I have many cares. (6) Did you do that? (7) I xvill it. (8) I shall will him a thousand dollars. (9) He may have been killed. 122 LESSOls-S ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 4. Pick out the verbs, tell whether they are simple or composite ; if the latter, which part may be regarded as principal : (1) He has stolen my horse. (2) Can storied urn or animated bust back to its mansion call the fleeting breath? (3) Did you see the comet? (4) Your hat lies on the stand. (5) Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young a soldier lay, torn with shot, and pierced with lances, bleeding slow his life away. (6) He was drunk before the liquor was drunk. (7) I am very much obliged to you. (8) I am obliged to go home. 5. Put the verbs of the following sentences first into the past tense, then into the future ; then into the passive voice : (1) The village master teaches his little school. (2) I hear thee speak of the better land. (3) He promises me a present. (4) His friends laugh at him. (5) The artful fellow imposes upon all. (6) I harm you not. (7) He tells me to go home. (8) She picks a rose. (9) He invades Italy. (10) His eloquence strikes them dumb. 6. Express the above sentences in all the tenses of the indicative and potential ; then change from the active to the passive voice. 7. Give all the participial forms, active, passive, and progressive of — give choose keep hurt bite break find lead read wish sink feed save hold buy lose Use in short sentences the past perfect progressive of each of these verbs, and tell whether regular or irregular: the verb is transitive or intransitive. sow sell quit ring bind see smite shake win blind rebel get live heat plant hide loose stick wink know 9. Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the principal parts of lie, sit, see, set, come, lay, rise, raise, do. PAETS OP SPEECH — IHPLECTIOH OF VERBS. 123 10. Analyze the following verb-phrases: (1) He shall be called Benjamin. (2) Did you think that I would do it? (3) He is certainly writing. (4) You should have seen him when he was lifted out of the water. (5) Might not the danger have been avoided? 11. Justify or correct the parts in italics: (1) I have saw it. (2) These is the plural of this. (3) Neither of them were here. (4) There comes the dogs. (5) 1 seen him yesterday. (6) It lays on the bed. (7) I raised up and struck him. (8) He has stole my pencil since I come. (9) Were the horses cZrove out ? (10) The nation is prosperous. (11) Is not loohs a noun? (12) He might have went. (13) He has fell from the tree. (14) Either you or 1 am going. (15) The merciful are blessed. (16) Money, as w^ell as men, was needed. (17) He don't know. (18) Each of these expressions suggest anger. (19) Is the tongs in its place? (20) Js ten dollars too much? (21) We are agreed, saysl. (22) To seem and to be are different. OHAPTEE XXI. PAETS OP SPEECH — HOW TO PARSE. To give a complete account of a word as it stands in the sentence with which it is connected, is to parse it. Parsing [from j^avs, a part] is, literally, naming the ‘jpart of speech'’ to which a word belongs; hut in the present sense of the term it means naming all the gram- matical points of a word. This account includes, (1) the classification of the word; (2) the modifications — that is, its inflectional forms, number, case, gender, person, tense, mode, voice, or degree; (3) its function, relation, or construction — that is, the duty it does, the part it plays, in building up or constructing the sentence into which it enters. The following schemes may serve to guide the pupil as to the details and order of statement. The instructor must decide how full or brief a description shall be ex- pected at any time. After a good degree of skill has been acquired in the practice of parsing, it will be sufficient, ordinarily, to indicate only the class and relation of the word. 1 ^It is in the detection and exhibition of this vital relationship of the words in the sentence that consists the peculiar value of the exercise. Intelligently pursued, the parsing of the words of a sentence calls into exercise the highest critical, logical, faculties of the mind. Far from being mechanical and use- less, it is the proper weapon of all successful attack upon the sentence ; and is as indispensable for its particular end, as is the equation in algebra, the syllo- gism in logic, or analysis in chemistry. — Dr. W. G. Williams; Outlines of Eng- lish Grammar. 124 PAKTS OP SPEECH — HOW TO PAESE. 125 1. Class , . . . . 2. Modifications 3. Function . . . NOUN. ^ Common '• Proper Number Gender Person Case Normal Abnormal Singular Plural {Masculine Feminine Common^ Neuter r First Second [ Third {Nominative Possessive Objective Vocative {Abstract Material Collective r Verbal Phrase t Clause or of verbal?) {Subject (to what?) Appositive (to what?) Possessive (limiting what?) Object (of preposition, of verb, 1. Class PRONOUNS. Personal Kelative Interrogative Demonstrative 2. Represented noun, or antecedent. 3. Modifications. — Same as those of the noun. 4. Function. — That of the noun. Relatives, and sometimes interro- gatives, also connect. See, however, page 78. 126 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 1. Principal Parts VERB. f Present Indicative • • • Past Indicative ^ Past Participle f As to Form 2. Class ^ i. As to Use f Regular, weak J Irregular, strong I Defective (deficient in any of I its simple forms) Transitive Intransitive 3. Modifications (5) Voice (4) Mode (3) Tense (2) Number (1) Person {Active Passive Neuter (not expressing action) r Indicative -I Potential [ Imperative ' Present Past Future Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect j Singular I Plural r First ^ Second [ Third r Common (ordinary, usual) 4. Form J Emphatic I Progressive I Interrogative 5. Function . . . Asserts action, being, or state, of what? PARTS OP SPEECH — HOW TO PARSE. 127 1. From what? 2. Class 3. Function . . VERBALS. f Participle (Present ) c<- t n i i Past ) Compound. ' Eoot-Inflnitive j ( Perfect Participial Infinitive . Subject, object, complement, or modifier of what? ADJECTIVE. 1. Class . 2. Modification. — Comparison 3. Function. - {Quality Quantity Interrogative Demonstrative Phrase Clause or What? Descriptive or Limitary Positive Comparative ^ Superlative Describes or limits what ? r Normal ^ Abnormal 1. Class ADVERB. {Phrase Clause or What? " Place Time Cause Manner Degree . Condition 128 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^ Positive 2. Modification. — Comparison ^ Comparative ^ Superlative 3. Function.— Throws its force on what? 1. Class . PREPOSITION. ' Place Time Agency Reason Possession Exclusion Material ^ the. 2. Function. — Links what part of speech to what? CONJUNCTION. Copulative Alternative 1. Class Co-ordinative Subordinative 2. Function, — Joins what? Correlative Adversative Illative Place Time Cause Condition Purpose or Result Comparison Substantive Pronoun Adverb Relative INTERJECTION. 1. Class . \ ( Abnormal 2. Function. — Expresses what emotion? PAKTS OP SPEECH — HOW TO PARSE. 129 TABULAR PARSING. The Adj., normal, demonstrative (def. art.); limits ‘herd.’ lowing Adj., abnormal, descriptive, present participle of ‘low’; modifies ‘herd.’ herd Noun, common, normal, collective, singular, neuter, nominative; subject of ‘winds.’ winds Verb, ‘wind,’ ‘wound,’ ‘wound’; strong or irregular; intransitive, active, indicative, present, third, singu- lar, common form; asserts action of ‘herd.’ slowly Adv., normal, manner, positive, (slowly, viore, most)\ modifies ‘winds.’ Prep., local; links ‘lea’ to ‘winds.’ the lea. Adj., as above; limits ‘lea.’ Noun, common, normal, singular, neuter, object of ‘o’er.’ EXERCISES. Parse the words in italics : Many centuries ago, a slave, who had made his escape from a cruel master, fled to a forest tvhere night surprised him, so that'hQ was forced to take refuge in a cave. Scarcely had he closed his eyes in the attempt to sleep, ivhen he heard the roar of a lion beside him; He started up, hut it was too late ; the keen eyes of the lion had seen him, and were slowly com- nearer^ Androcles — who had no arms of any kind — now gave himself up for lost. ^What shall Ido?^ said he. ‘ I have no spear or sword — no, not so much as a stick to defend myself with.’ And he cried aloud in agony, ‘0 foolish Androcles, tvhy didst thou leave thy cruel master, who at least would have spared thy life because thou wasf 130 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. useful to him, tvhereas now thou wilt he the meal of this hungry lion ? ’ What was his surprise, however, to find that the lion, instead of springing on him, was walking quietly ^l,p to him, limping as though he were in pain! Gaining courage at this, Androeles made no attempt to run away. Presently the lion held out his paw, and on examining it, Androeles found that it was inflamed and swelled. Look- ing more closely, he perceives that a thorn has pierced the ball of the foot, and that it is from this that the lion is suffering. OHAPTEE XXII. PARTS OP SPEECH — WORD-MAKING. All inflections illustrate tlie process of word-making. Thus our familiar ^am"* represents an original as-mi, a verb and a pronoun, meaning ‘^be-I.-’ ‘ Is stand for as-ti, ‘be-tliat.-’ In like manner, the cl of ^ loved ^ is a remnant of did; and I loved means I love-did = I did love = I did or performed a loving. Mi, ti, and did, once distinct words, have sunk into mere grammatical signs, with the exception of the latter, which still maintains its standing as a separate word. Again, the second syllable of care-fnl ’ is easily recog- nized as the adjective ^ full,^ yet with the consciousness of its origin nearly lost. The ly of ‘ lovely is a relic of our common ‘like,'’ anciently lie, as in leojlic = ‘love-like.'’ In a vast number of our words we can thus discover two elements, one of which conveys the central idea, while the other indicates some modification of that idea. These cases, in which frequency of use has changed words of distinct meaning into meaningless endings, are broadly distinguished from others like ‘fear-inspiring,’ ‘break-neck,’ and ‘house-top,’ which are directly translat- able back into the elements which form them. But all combinations run essentially the same course. There are couples which we to-day hardly know whether to write 131 132 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. separately or with, the hyphen, as ‘ well-known/ mother- tongue/ There are others so grown together that we seldom or never think of their double nature, as himself, ’ herself. ’ Sometimes the connection is so close that the original parts are quite obscured. Such is ^ fortnight fourteen nights. Such is breakfast,^ given to the morning meal because it broke the longest fast of the twenty-four hours. ^ Fearless was oi\q,q fear-loose (free from fear), and Pope says, ^Be ware \beioare~\ of man." In general there are four ways of making new words from given ones: (1) ^wefixes, as ^un-bind," ‘co-heir"; (2) by internal change, as ‘gold" and ‘gild," ‘think" and ‘thank"; (3) by suffixes, as ‘gold-en," ‘hand-some"; (4) by joining together distinct words, as ‘steam-ship," ‘white- wash." The first method usually changes the sense; the third usually changes the part of S2:»eech. The union of parts frequently comj^els a change for the sake of easy and agreeable utterance; as ‘ col-lect" for co7i- lect, ‘dif-fer" for clis-fer, ‘di-vulge" for dis-vulge, ‘an- archy " for a-archy. A word derived from another by the method of (1), (2), or (3) is called a Derivative ; and the word from which it is made is called its Primitive. A succession of suffixes and prefixes gives rise, of course, to relative or secondary primitives, as in ‘trn-th," ‘ trutli-iM\,’ ‘ ti'uthful-ij ‘un- trutliful-\y The union, in accordance with (4), of two words which are separately significant, is called Composition, and the resulting word a Compound; ‘day-star," ‘sun-beam," ‘rose-tinted." In general the first component qualifies the PAETS OF SPEECH — WOED-MAKIHG. 133 second. Note the difference between ^ finger-ring ^ and ^ ring-finger. ’ Usually the compound throws the accent (or stress of voice) on the first part. Thus ^ Newport ’ is easily distinguished from ‘'new port.^ A ‘'mad house ^ would be a family all deranged; but a ‘'mad-house^ is a house for receiving the insane. We have already seen, however, that compounds tend to lose the identity of their parts, thus passing into deriva- tives; and that the latter really differ from the former only in their dimmed meaning. Browning = 'brown-ing — dark or tawny offspring; Egbert eye-hright; ‘ Bene- dict = well-said; ‘ shire-reeve; ‘'mid- dle ^ = mid-deal; ‘ Massinger ^ - mass-singer ; ‘ bridal ^ = bride ale, a reminiscence of the marriage feast. A derivative, then, differs from a compound only in having a closer unity. In the one case, a constituent has degenerated into a non-significant appendage, more or less corrupted and altered; in the other, it has thus far pre- served, with measurable distinctness, its original character. While the following lists will greatly assist in discrim- inating native from foreign words, they will not afford a sure key to the origin of the words into which they enter. Though the strict rule for word-making is, that all the parts of speech must be from the same language, English writers often permit themselves to form words from differ- ent languages. Words thus formed are mongrels, or (which is the Greek for ‘mongreh), hybrids: ‘shepherd-ess^ = English -j- Norman-French; ‘social-ism'’ or ‘moral-ize'’ = Latin -|- Greek. In ‘ botan-ic-al,’ the base and the primary suffix are Greek, and the secondary suffix is Latin; while ‘ botan-ic-al-ly ’ adds a Saxon element. 134 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAE. The important prefixes are: SAXON. a, an = 071, in, from, hack of: at = at: al = all: be = hy (0. E.): for = negation: fore ) forth >• = before: in — in: mis = error: off — from: on = iqmt: out = beyond (0. E. ut): over — over: un = bade, not: under = beneath: up — up: with = bade, agamst: a-blaze, a-bed, a-foot, a-thirst, a-rise, a-right, an-swer. at-one, at-onement. al-mighty, al-one, l-onely, al-so. be-times, be-cause, be-friend, by-word, be-dew. for-bid, for-swear, for-bear. j fore-run, fore-tell, t for-ward, forth-coming, in-sight, in-to, in-ure. mis-deed, mis-take. of-fal, off-shoot, on-set, on-ward, out-live, out-let, ut-ter. over-flow, over-coat, un-do, un-bind, vin-true. under-go, under-sell, up-hold, up-right, up-on. with-draw, with-stand. LATIN. Note.— Let the student, by help of a suitable dictionary, trace the present meaning of these words back to the meaning of prefix and root. a, ab ahs before c, t ad ac before c af “ / ay “ 9 al “ I am ‘ ‘ m an “ n ai~> ‘ ‘ p ar “ r as “ s at “ t j- = from: a- vert, ab-rupt, abs-tract, abs-cond. ' = to, at: ad-join, ac-cretion, af-flrm, ag- gregate, al-lude, am-munition, an-nul, ap-plaud, ar-rogate, as-sist, at-tract. J PAETS OP SPEECH — WOED-MAKIHG. 135 bene = well: bene-fit, bene-volent. circum = around: cireum-vent, circum-scribe, circu-it. con col before I = with, together: con-nect, con-tempo- raneons, col-lect, com-bine, corn-press, cor-rupt, co-eval, co-heir. h or p vowel or h com cor CO de = dozen, from, azvay: de-duce, de-press, de-throne dis, di, dif — apart, in two, not: dis-join, di- verge, dif-fuse. ex \ e before d, n, I, m > out, ozit of: ex-press, e-ducate, ^ e-manate, ef-face. e-lect / ef in il before I im p, m r in, into, on, not: in-vade, il-lumine, im-press, im-merse, im-piety, ir-radi- ate, ir-regnlar. inter non ob oc before c of “ f op “ p per = ( post = ( pre pro = ( re semi sub szic before c suf “ / sug “ ff sum “ m sup “ p sur “ r szis “ s trans = { between: inter- vention, inter-line. _ j in fz'ozit of: ob-stacle. ( against: op-pose. half: semi-colon, semi-circle. = under, from under: sub-tend, sue-cor, snc-ceed, suf-fer, sug-gest, sum-mons, sup-pose, sur-render, sus-pect. = (Fr. tres, tre) acz'oss: trans-form, tres-pass, tra- verse. 136 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. ^ I = without: a-pathy, an-archy. an before vowels 1 amph.i = on hoth sides: amphi-bious. ana =tip, again, hack: ana-lysis, an-ec-dote, ana-logy. anti ) ant f ~ against : anti-thesis, ant-arctie. cath 1 _ about: cath-olic, cat-egory. cat ) dia = through : dia-ineter, dia-gonal. di, dis — two: di-plithoiig, dis-syllable. I = forth, Old: ec-centric, ex-orcising. ex before vowels ) en 1 em before m, h, p V = in, on: en-thusiasm, em-phasis, el-liptical. el I ) eu = well: en-logy, eu-phony. orth.o = right: ortho-doxy, ortho-epy. pHilo 1 phil before vowel ) syn syl before I sym “ h, m, p sy “ s, z = loving: philo-sophy, phil-anthropy. = ivith: syn-tax, syl-lable, sym-bol, sym-metry, sym-pathy, sy-stem. Some of tlie important suffixes are; d dom SAXON. passive sense: dee-d (from do), see-d (from sow), love-d. condition: wis-dom, free-dom, Christen-dom. participicd or causative: burd-en (from bear), heav-en (heave), hast-en. diminutive: kitt-en (from cat), gard(yard)-en. made of: flax-en, gold-en, ' wood-en. feminine: vix-en (from fox). PARTS OF SPEECH — WOED-MAKIHG. 137 er j ar 1 or \ 1 ( agent: speak-er, begg-ar, sail-or, and (under Nor- c = I man Fr. influence) law-y-er, cloth-i-er. ( ( instriment : flng-er, timb-er, wint-er (from wind). full = full of: hate-ful, need-ful. ing j verlal ending: learn-ing, ( diminutive: farth-ing. ish less let ling ly ness ship some y = (0. E. isc) quality of: boy-ish, fool-ish. = loose, negation: art-less, god-less. = diminutive: stream-let. = diminutive: dar-ling (from dear), gos-ling. = (0. E. lie) like: mean-ly, home-ly, soft-ly, like-ly. = abstractive: wilder-ness, wit-ness, good-ness. = (0. E. scipe)/orw, shape: land-scape, lord-ship. ' = participation in: dark-some, quarrel-some. = (0. E. ig) : bod-y, hon-ey, an-y, blood-y, silk-y. It has become ow in holl-ow, sall-ow. age ROMANIC. ^ , ( condition: bond-age. = Lat. aaezm, through \ , , , ^ -< result: break-age. Norman Fr. K , . , 7, ( location: hermit-age. al, el = Lat. alis: cardin-al, coron-al, fu-el, jew-el, annu-al, equ-al, loy-al [= reg-al = Lat. reg-alis\. ant, ent — Lat. antem, entem: gi-ant, stud-ent, ramp-ant, pati-ent. ance, ence ancy, ency ate hie, able = Lat. antia, entia: abund-ance, sci-ence. — Lat. antia, entia: brilli-ancy, excell-ency. = Lat. atus: leg-ate, delic-ate, agit-ate. = Lat. hilis, plex: sta-ble, mov-able, dou-ble [= Lat. du-plex\. eer, ier ess fy ic = Fr. er, ier: Lat. arius: engin-eer, brigad-ier. = Lat. itia: distr-ess, rich-es. = Lat. ficare, Fr. fier: edi-fy, magni-fy, signi-fy. Lat. ic^is, ica: mus-ic, cler-k [= cler-ic], log-ic, phys-ic. ine, in = Lat. inus, inem: div-ine,'fam-ine, orig-in, virg-in. ish. = Lat. esc-o, Fr. iss: establ-ish, fin-ish. 138 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. ism = Lat. ismus: de-ism, fatal-ism. ist =Lat. ista: bapt-ist, dent-ist. ive = Lat. ivus: act-ive, plaint-ive, pens-ive. ize = Lat. izare: civil-ize, fertil-ize. ment = Lat. mentum: gar-ment, argu-ment. on, eon, ion — Lat. onem, ionem: apr-on, glutt-on, compan-ion, pig-eon. i = Lat. osMs; verb-ose, mor-ose, copi-ous, curi-ous. OUS ) 5 5 r J son = Lat. sionem: beni-son, ran-som, rea-son, veni-son. t, te = Lat. fits: discree-t, hones-t, mu-te, chas-te. ter = Lat. ter: mis-ter, mas-ter (= Lat. magister), mus-ter. ure = Lat. ura: advent-ure, stat-ure, past-ure. ( Lat. ia: famil-y, victor-y (Lat. vietor-ia). y = -< Lat. ium: stnd-y obsequ-y. ( Lat. ous: spong-y. A study of the foregoing lists will shed much light up- on the derivation of the of sjjeech. Of nouns, some are primitive; as ‘'eye,^ ^hand,^ ‘^hope.^ In the comparison of languages, they may sometimes be traced to forms still more primitive; but so far as concerns English, they are roots. Derived nouns are formed from other nouns, from adjectives, and from verds, by prefixes, by internal change, but chiefiy by suffixes: ^bishop-ric,^ ^ kind-ness,'’ ‘’song’ (sing), jiress-man,'’ Dlrunk-ard,'’ ‘'choice' (choose), ‘life' (live). In a similar manner, derived verbs are extensively formed from verhs, as, ‘be-seech' (seek), ‘burn-ish,' ‘rise,' ‘raise,' ‘sit,' ‘set'; from nouns, as ‘be-guile,' ‘em- power,' ‘ length-en,' ‘gild' (gold), ‘prize' (price), ‘hitch' (hook); from adjectives, as ‘be-dim,' ‘en-dear,' ‘sweet-en.' Derived adjectives are formed from nouns, as ‘rag- ged,’ ‘wood-en'; from verlos, as ‘win-some,' ‘ teach-able '; PARTS OP SPEECH — WOED-MAKIHO. 139 from adjectives, as ^un-wise/ ^im-fair/ ^year-ly/ "ful- some/ Derived adverbs come principally from adjectives, by the addition of ly, as " careless-ly/ "sweet-ly/ "bitter-ly/ They are also formed from other parts of speech, as " per- haps/ "a-part/ "a-drift/ "al(l)-ways/ "al(l)-so/ Our adverbs, like our adjectives, owe their descent, almost without exception, to other classes of words. " Once and "twice ’are but old genitives of "one ’and "two.’ When we say, "It must needs be,’ Tve employ the genitive of "need,’ originally "need-es.’ Sometimes the adverb con- sists of several words run together, as " now-a-days,’ " never-the-less.’ The chief prepositions are primitives; as "of,’ "from,’ "to,’ ‘for,’ "by,’ "with,’ "over,’ "under.’ A few are de- rived from other prepositions, from nouns, adjectives, or verbs; as "a-long,’ "a-round,’ "be-yond,’ "a-board,’ "be- tween’ [by-twain = by two], "with-in’; "ex-cept,’ "con- cerning,’ " notwithstanding,’ which in form are participles. Conjunctions are either simple underived words of the language, as "and,’ "if’; or are appropriations from other parts of speech, as "since,’ "except,’ "that,’ "before.’ "Because’ is "by cause,’ and "than’ is from "then,’ itself an ancient accusative. The great matter as regards derivation is to see clearly the meaning of significant prefixes and suffixes, and to use words accordingly. Dr. Chalmers, speaking of his suc- cess in dealing with pauperism in Glasgow, declared that what he had done was not an ‘ experime^^G’ but an " ex- perie/zce.’ Compare "exception^C with "exception^JZe,’ "trouble^/ sleep’ with "troublesome sleep.’ 140 LESSONS IN ENOLISH GEAMMAR. EXERCISES. 1. Comljine the following prefixes and roots; give, as nearly as you can, the modifying force of the prefix ; and tell what different parts of speech the resulting word may be : a, ah, ad, anti, he, hene, circum, con, de, e, ex, en, for, fore, in, mis, oh, out, over, pre, re, suh, syn, trans, un, under, up, u-ith: ground, side, vert (turn), rupt (broken), tain (hold), tom (cut), join, judge, mount, fix, sure, tribute (give), arctic, pathy (feeling), lie, cloud, cause, fit (doing), volent (wishing), jacent (lying), spect (looking), stance (standing), fuse (pour), vene (come), moralize, tect (cover), appear, ease, tract, please, press, gress, mit (send), pectorant (breast), pand (spread), fulgence (shining), rage, gulf, grave (scrape), tomb, bitter, brace (arm), get, sake (seek), tell, see, taste, discreet, noble, modest, patient, liberal, regular, flame, fleet (bend). 2. Join the following suffixes and bases; give, if you can, the source of each ; and state to what part of speech both primitive and derivative may or do belong: ade, age, at, dom, ic, ion, ism, ess, ier, ine, ive, ix, ly, ment, er, ness, ship, ure, y, ate, hie, en, ful, ish, ous, some, fy, ize: hero, heir, create, abuse, operate, perceive, adhere, chariot, visit, school, hunt, edit, widow, foreign, stock, mite, post, bond, parson, duke, king, poet, possess, precise, expand, despot, critic, heathen, case, punish, arm, bold, happy, moist, seize, modest, grocer, private, lunatic, nation, origin, part, music, affection, consider, change, honor, value, divide, accede, silk, wool, hope, play, lyre, adamant, boy, fop, fame. 3. Join into compounds: wind, head, mill, strong, school, state, alms, house, door, key, God, man, like, snow, white, keeper, time, slave, born, wine, bibber, stone, blind, woman, servant, catch, word, in, chief, commander, land, high, love, self, star, day. 4. Classify the following compounds, then classify the parts of each: red-breast, sing-song, dare-devil, hand-book, rose-bud, drawing- room, spit-fire, turncoat, instep, forethought, by-word, up- PAETS OP SPEECH — WOED-MAKIHG. 141 rising, welcome, make-believe, in-gathering, hear-say, sea- green, pitch-dark, child-like, spirit-stirring, lion-hearted, far-fetched, over-done, fruit-bearing, rough-hew, brow-beat, length-ways, where-as, there-about, somehow, nowhere, with- out, upon, into, back-bite. 5. Resolve the following into their elements (bases, prefixes, and suffixes), and classify, where possible, indicating also the part of speech in derivative and primitive: flattery, ending, coinage, aloud, monthly, blacken, linger, hinder, terrify, colonize, amid, along, perchance, enfold, untie, distrust, lengthen, active, lively, carelessly, oily, un- true, blackish, avoidable, lawless, beautiful, woolen, Romish, wretched, director, idler, trickster, replace, reconstruct, per- fectible, annex, forefather, irresolute, misinform, suppress, repress, impress, - impressible, irrepressible, facilitate, intru- sive, thicken, youthful. 6. Form derivatives from the following as bases, and classify both : body, glory, weary, grace, incite, control, swim, awe, giddy, like, just, day, marvel, reverence, face, flame, vary, merry, annoy, holy, come, bind, new, vow, obstruct, expire, - cat, thief, half, gird, fall, venture, Newfoundland. 7. Derive single parts of speech from the following, and classify ; sick with love, struck with fear, deal in pictures, with a mouth of gold, like a god, inspiring dread, hunt after fortune, abide by the laws, gaze at stars, tell the truth, tossed by the tempest, sees all things, bright like the sun, a bearer of tales, about there. OPIAPTEE XXIII. THE SENTENCE — PEINCIPAL ELEMENTS. The elements of a sentence are its parts. The prin- cipal elements are those necessary for the expression of a thought, — subject and predicate. The subject (by which is here meant the lave, subject) is either a noun or its equivalent: Conversation enriches the understanding. The good must associate when the bad combine. To he innocent is to be not guilty. Reading much is not the only way to knowledge. ‘J ivill try' has wrought wonders. The predicate (that is, the hare predicate) is — 1. Usually a verb: j j Responsibility 67ia?y)ens our faculties. ^ ' I hered (2) Gomg)osite — The palace should not scorn the cottage. 2. A verb and an adjective (called predicate ad- jective): Sweet are the uses of adversity. Iron is of great use = Iron is very usefid. ^ ‘Here,’ like an adjective, seems to complete ‘am,’ and, like an adverb, to modify it. Prom its form and usual oflace, however, we think it should in this sentence be called an adverbial modifier of ‘am,’ [=exist'\. The adverb, in this and similar sentences, may also be regarded as modifying some ‘ predi- cative’ word understood. Thus: ‘The sun is [gone] down.’ ‘Gold is [present] there.’ 142 THE SEHTEHCE — PEIHCIPAL ELEMENTS. 143 3. A verb and a noun (predicate nominative) : Gray hairs are death’s blossoms. To enjoy is to obey. Pilate’s question was, ‘What is truth? ^ It is implied in the above statements and examples that the predicate consists of two factors — an assertive and an attributive.! The former is the life of the sentence — the engine that propels the train. It is called the cojmlci, to indicate that it couples the main ideas of a statement: ‘'She is good.'’ The copula, by pre-eminence, is be, which originally expressed breathing, then existence, as it does now some- times: ‘lam/ ‘^God -fs.’ Gradually this meaning faded out, and the word came to be used frequently as a mere coupler, serving to bring two ideas into connection: ‘God is good.’ Both uses occur in the passage: ^We believe that He is, and that He is the re warder of them that diligently seek him.’ He who would be saved from hope- less confusion, however, will do well to remember that the verb be has radically the sense of ^ exist.’ ^Victoria is queen’ is, at bottom, equal to ^Victoria exists queen.’ ‘ The man is dying ’ is no other than ‘ The man exists in a dying condition’; and ^The man is dead’ is neither more nor less than ^The man (that is, his body) exists dead’; for the existence [ex-stare, to stand forth] predi- cated by ^to be’ is predicable alike of things animate and inanimate. The copula expresses merely a relative, not an 1 The several authorized views respecting the nature of the predicate are (1), that the predicate is always a verb; (2) that the predicate = copula -f at- tribute; (3) that the predicate is the attribute only. For a justification of the first view, see the author’s Essentials of English, page 129. The second is here recommended, however, as being sufficiently precise and practically the best. 144 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. absolute, existence, Ptolemy is not alive'’ denies his existence relative to life, but implies it in the other sense — that he exists to us as a dead man can, by remembrance or tradition. Understanding, therefore, that be really declares a thing existent, we may correctly affirm that the copula is an implied or formal jiortion of every predicate. It is the first, when being and attribution — the essentials of the predicate — are expressed in one word; as, ^Socrates sjDeaks,’ where a certain act — that is, existence together with a certain condition of existence — is asserted. It is the second, Avhen being and attribution are expressed in different words: , PREDICATE. , Copula. Attribute. (1) It is excellent (2) Gold is a metal (3) He is condemned (4) Socrates is (speaks) speaking The assertive element is affected, in (1) and (2), only by limitation; in (3) and (4), by both limitation and ex- pansion. Convenience, however, justifies us in treating these latter as units. Thus, ignoring in practice the dis- tinction which we make in theory, the term vert) is applied equally to simple and composite forms. Grammatically, ^ Birds = ‘'Birds are flying.’ Dismissing the historical fact that the assertive element denotes hemg, and confining our view to its superficial office as a coupler, we may accept the common state- ment that be is a verb of incomplete predication, requiring, under this aspect, something additional to form any com- THE SEHTEHCE — PEIHCIPAL ELEMENTS. 145 pleted sense. The addition may be variously designated, as comiilement, supplement, or predicate attribute. ^ A prepositional complement sometimes, as we have stated elsewhere, enters into the structure of a verb-term: ‘burn up’ [= consume], ‘keep on’ [= continue], ‘stand out’ [= resist], ‘make up’ [= constitute], ‘take up’ arrest]. Such compounds are often transitive in the fullest sense, as tested by the passive construction: ‘His zeal was wondered-^^^,^ ‘ The servant was spoken-^fo by his master.^ Likewise, it t^II be remembered, a few other verbs which share the office of the copula as ties, yet are some- what more, are called copulatives: (1) He seemed ... (a monster). (2) He became ... (a hero). (3) He lived . . . (an apostle), and died ... (a martyr). (4) He appears, looks ... (a rascal). (5) He was thought, deemed, called, named ... (a villain). (6) He was made, appointed, created . . . (president). Here the entire attribute includes the noun, and that part of the verb which is not mere copula — the ideas of seem- ing, becoming, thinking, believing, etc. Such copulatives are also known as apposition verbs, because their com- plements are in apposition predicatively with their sub- jects » Obviously, the attributive relation is uot affected by position ; it may be assumed or it maybe asserted— predicated. ‘Wise' is equally an attribute in ‘the vrise man’ and ‘The man is -wise’ Logic, p. 57). For the asserted attribute, however, whether adjective or substantive, my friend Professor Williams {Outlines of English Grammar, p. 56) recommends ‘predicative.’ ^Between ‘he, a professed Catholic,’ and ‘He is a professed Catholic,’ there is no othej' discoverable difference than that the identity signified by the appositive is, in the former, taken for granted, while in the latter it is affirmed. (See p. 58.) 146 LESSOJn'S liT ENGLISH GEAMMAE. EXERCISES. Name the principal elements in each sentence. If subject, state whether it is a normal or an abnormal noun (or plurality of nouns). If predicate, whether the complex idea — being and attribution — is expressed in one word or in several; if the latter, whether the form is to be considered a composite verb, or a verb (copulative) and its complement. In both cases, whether the element is subject or predicate of the entire sen- tence, or of a part (as in a clause) : 1 . I love to lose myself in other men’s minds. 2. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of despotism. 3. Extreme admiration puts out the critic’s eye. 4. No scene is continually loved except one enriched by joyful human labor. 5. The report is, that he is a traitor. 6. Seen at a little distance, as she walked across the church- yard and down the village, she seemed to be attired in pure white, and her hair looked like a dash of gold on a lily. 7. The evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race. 8. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is trodden on. 9. To speak perfectly well, one must feel that he has got to the bottom of his subject. 10. All those things for which men plough, build, or sail, obey virtue. 11. Of all sad words of tongue or pen. The saddest are these: ‘It might have been.’ To be at war With one we love. Doth work like madness in the brain. 12. CHAPTEE XXIY. THE SENTENCE — SUBOKDINATE ELEMENTS. The simplest form of sentence consists of the essentials only — subject and predicate. Each of these, however, may be enlarged by other words that give it fullness or exactness of meaning; as ‘the fire,^ ‘^the bright fire,^ “^the brightly blazing fire/ ‘the brightly blazing fire which was seen in the distance.’ The subject is enlarged — 1. By a normal adjective: 'Much anxiety shortened her life.’ 2. By an abnormal adjective — (1) A possessive: 'Mamie's anxiety shortened her life. (2) An appositive : ‘ Peter the hermit was a Crusader ’ ; ‘Her answer, "Seven are we," was repeated.’ (3) A prepositional phrase : ‘ The door on your right hand is open.’ (4) A verbal phrase : ‘ Having spent its fury, the sea be- came quiet.’ (5) A relative clause : ‘A man who is provident is respected.’ Evidently the predicate nominative an^d- the object may be' similarly enlarged. ' '■ The predicate is enlarged — 1. By an object: (1) Direct — ‘ He defies him ' ; ‘ He said that he would go.' (2) Indirect — ‘ They gave him his supper.’ 147 148 LESSOJTS lET EliTGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. By an adverb — (1) Normal: ‘ He rose ear?^/.’ (2) Abnormal: (a) Prepositional phrase: ‘He cried ivith a loud voice.' (b) Clause: ‘ I will go, if it does not rain.' (c) Verbal: ‘ She went along {d) Verbal phrase: ‘He is believed to have been wronged ' ; ‘ She stood wring- ing her hands.' (e) Adverbial noun, denoting time, distance, value, direction, and the like: ‘He sat an hour'-, ‘The tree was a hundred feet high ’ ; ‘ It is worth a dollar.' The adverbial noun is a remnant of Old English, which had sj)ecial case-endings for such uses of the noun. i Of modifiers, some affect the subject and jDredicate directly; as “"hlack,^ "yesterday," or "pleasantly," in the fol- lowing sentence: The black squirrel on the oak tree in the meadow behind the barn was chatting pleasantly yesterday with a gray squir- rel on an ash tree in an adjoining field. Others affect the subject and predicate indirectly. Thus "oak" and "in the meadow behind the barn," limit "squir- rel," by first limiting tree. Likewise, "in an adjoining field" first limits "tree," then "squirrel" through "tree"; then, through "squirrel," it limits "was chatting." Since these modifiers merely explain and depend upon the principal parts, they are said to be subordinate. There- fore, subordinate elements are the parts which modify principal elements. 1 The noun in these uses is sometimes said to he in the objective case without a governing word, or to be governed by a preposition understood. THE SEHTEHCE — SUBOKDIHATE ELEMENTS. 149 In picking out the modifiers of subject and predicate, those words whose meanings are closely united must go together. Thus ‘'the'’ and ^ black'’ are separate modifiers; but as ^behind the barn’ is a modifier of ^meadow/ and ^in the meadow^ is a modifier of ‘tree/ and ‘on the oak tree’ is a modifier of ‘squirrel/ we should say that ‘squir- rel’ is modified, not merely by ‘on the oak tree,'’ but by ‘on the oak tree in the meadow behind the barn.'’ What- ever is modified is hase with reference to the term that modifies. Subordinate elements, as commonly divided, are of three kinds: Adjective, if they modify nouns. Objective, if they are the objects of transitive verbs. Adverbial, (1) if they modify adjectives or adverbs; (2) if they modify verbs, and are not objects. ^ When the predicate is regarded as consisting of copula and attribute, it would be well to determine whether the modification relates to the whole or more especially to one of these constituents. The pupil will often meet (as our examples at various times must have suggested) expres- sions that rnodify the verb relatively to the subject: He stood musing. She walked calm and majestic. Everyone will see that the modifying part in each of these examples, while it relates more or less to the verb, carries a manifest reference to the subject. Under the former aspect they are adverbial; under the latter, adjec- tival. 1 Upon closer view, however, this classification is seen to be only approxi- mate. An objective element is merely a variety of the adverbial, not a sepa- rate or co-ordinate class. 150 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. If itself unmodified, the modifier is said to be simple ; (1) He loves ivisdom. (2) He is a lover of wisdom. (3) We hear that he is ivise. If modified, it is complex : (1) He built houses of stone. (2) He ran with wonderful rapidity. (3) He said that the planets revolve, a well Tcnown fact. If consisting of two or more co-ordinate parts, it is compound : (1) Large and beautiful rivers. (2) Men of wisdom and of poiver. (3) They decide that you should come and that he should go. Either constituent, it is evident, may he modified, and thus become complex. A modifier, however extended, is said to be of the word-form, if its base (the fundamental portion) is a sin- gle term; of the phrase-form, if its base is a phrase; of the clause-form, if its base is a clause. Not infrequently, a base that is primary with reference to a given modifier becomes, in union with such modifier, a complex base with reference to a second modifier. Thus in ^fragrant red roses, ^ the primary base is roses ^ — the secondary, ^red roses'’; for fragrant’ modifies, not ^ roses,’ but the com- plex idea in ‘'red roses.’ Subordination, whether of modifiers in general, or of clauses in particular, may be of various degrees: History tells us (1) that Socrates said (2) that he was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men (3) merely because he hnew (4) that he hnew nothing. Here the object of the principal verb consists of four THE SENTENCE — SUBOEDINATE ELEMENTS. 151 clauses, of which (1) is modified by (2), (2) by (3), and (3) by (4). Observe that merely'’ throws its force upon the complex thought of (3) and (4): ^Merely because . . . nothing ^ = merely for this reason = for this only. Finally, we have to consider the closeness of connection between a word and its modifier — whether the latter is necessary to the main thought or only explanatory. Thus, compare : r He who is his own lawyer has a fool for a client, j J There are moral principles slumbering in the most de- I praved. I Swift asserts that no man ever wished himself younger. {I dislike all misery, voluntary or involuntary. Man, tvho is born of woman, is of few days. Spiritual natures, to grow in power, demand spiritual liberty. The italicized parts in (1) could not be omitted without serious injury to the sense or the utter destruction of it; those in (2), while they are truly limitary, are not im- portant or essential to the meaning. The former are therefore said to be restrictive, the latter parenthetical. EXERCISES. 1. Distinguish between: ‘ He painted the blue box,’ and ‘ He painted the box blxhe.' 2. In the preceding, give the entire modifier of ‘ distinguish.’ Is this of the word, phrase, or clause form? What is its office? The incorporated sentences are the equivalents of what parts of speech? 3 Give the distinguishable shades of meaning in: ‘Dido is queen,’ ‘Dido, a queen, walks,’ ‘Dido walks a queen,’ ‘Dido walks queenlike,’ ‘Dido walks majestically.’ 4. Justify the use of ‘is ’ in ‘ Myself is weak.’ 152 LEssosrs nr English geammae. 5. Write a sentence containing, with reference to some modifier, a complex base. 6. Write a sentence containing a complex modifier of the phrase- form. Write one with a complex modifier of the clause-form. 7. Determine the subordinate parts; whether they are adjective, objective, or adverbial elements; whether they are normally or abnormally (by equivalence) such; whether they are of the word, phrase, or clause form; whether simple, complex, or com- pound : (I) We live in better times. (2) My connections, once the source of happiness, now embitter the reverse of my fortune. (3) He has a mind to discourse on that theme. (4) A mind at liberty to reflect on its own observations, seldom fails of entertainment to itself. (5) Toward night the school-master walked over to the cottage where his little friend lay sick. (6) Who can tell when he sets forth to wander, whither he may be driven by the uncer- tain current of existence, or when he may return ? (7) What means this martial array, if its purpose be not to force us into submission ? i (8) Pope was not content to satisfy, he desired to excel, and therefore always en- deavored to do his best. (9) He made them give up their spoils. (10) Money and man a mutual falsehood show. (II) Some pious drops the closing eye I'equires. (12) Oh she is Ten times more gentle than her father ’s crabbed. (13) 0, guide me to the humble cell Where resignation loves to dwell. (14) With sanguine drops the walls are rubied round. And nature in the tangles soft involved Of death-like sleep. 8. Are the italicized parts restrictive or parenthetical? (1) Bion said, ^Know thyself.^ (2) Death is the season which brings our affections to the test. (3) Ores are natural compo unds, being produced by nature. THE SEKTEHCE — SUBORDI^TATE ELEMENTS. 153 (4) He, a professed Catholic, imprisoned the Pope. (5) Of all our senses, sight is the most perfect. (6) Her crystal lamp the evening star has lighted. (7) On the fifth day of the moon, which, according to the custom of my forefathers, I always Iceep holy. (8) The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, the moss- covered bucket, which hung in the toell. CHAPTER XXY. THE SENTENCE — INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS. We often nse words that do not combine with other words to modify or limit them, yet they help to express onr feelings, and so have emotive or rhetorical value in the sentence. The true type of the class is the Inter- jection. For the jinrpose of enforcing or softening, or otherwise affecting the assertion, many expressions are in a similar way interjected in what we say. A noun, for example, may be thns independent — that is, without (jrammcdical connection: 1. By address (vocative); as — I will, sir. Ye s])irits That tend on mortal idioughts, unsex me here. 2. By exclamation ; as — What nonsense ! Mortimer! Who talks of Mortimer? 3. By pleonasm ; as — The Pilgrim Fathers, where are they? 4. By absolnte construction ; as — The signal being given, we started. He flies, ^vild terror in his loolc. Snell a word is said to be used absolutely, because, be- ' ing without any case-form or connective to denote its 154 THE SEHTEHCE — IHDEPEHDEHT ELEMENTS. 155 relation, it appears to stand as if ‘’cut loose ^ from the sen- tence. ISTominatives absolute, however, while they do not grammatically depend on any other word in the sentence, are logically adverbial or adjective modifiers. Thus, Spring coming, the flowers will bloom = When spring comes, the flowers will bloom = The flowers will bloom in spring-time. Finally, words that are merely introductory, phrases and clauses that are of the general character of modals, distantly connected perhaps with the assertion, yet un- necessary to the sense, and unrelated, are treated as grammatically independent : (1) There is no place like home. (2) What is there that he can not do? (3) His conduct, generally speaking, was good. (4) To tell the truth, I doubted my ability to succeed. (5) Well, this is the forest of Arden. (6) The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. (7) Religion — who can doubt it? — is the noblest of themes. The pupil must not fall into the error of judging that interruptive or parenthetical parts are always independent. The proper test is, not the accident of position or punctu- ation, but the connection of thought. Thus, the follow- ing parenthesis! is both grammatically and logically related to the leading verb: I do beseecli you (Chiefly that I may set it in my prayers), What is your name? Often the only office of the curves is emphasis. They serve merely to draw particular attention to the matter * Greek aside, and enthesis, insertion; a word, phrase, or statement inserted aside in a sentence complete without it. 156 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. within them. Again^ ^ cried ^ and ^ said/ in the following passages are equally governing verbs: (1) ‘Make me a cottage in the vale,’ she cried, ‘Where I may mourn and pray.’ (2) And all his sorrow to the moon he told, And said, ‘ Surely wlien thou art horned new, I shall be glad — if all the world he true,’ The order of the latter is usual; of the former, trans- posed. To say that any organic relation is affected by the transposition, is absurd. Without changing the sense or metre, we can read: ‘And sure,’ he said, ‘When thou art horned new I shall be glad — if all the world be true.’ Another erroneous notion is, that it is without gram- matical connection in such forms as — (1) It can not be that thou art gone (2) Is it so small a thing. To have enjoyed the sun : To have lived light in the spring; To have loved, to have thought, to have done ? So far from being a superflous element, ‘'it'’ is here an essential — the grammatical subject, with which the clause in (1) and the infinitives in (2) are logically in apposition. The apq>ositives explain what the pronoun vaguely or indefinitely rejiresents. A similar construction is seen in John, am going'’; or ‘1, Alexander, king of Mace- donia, make this decree.'’ Compare with either: It, to see the sun, is pleasant = It is pleasant to see the sun. This task, to teach the young, is delightful = It is a delightful task to teach the young. THE SEifTEifCE — liTDEPEE'DEE'T ELEMEISTS. 157 EXERCISES. Resolve the following into principal, subordinate, and independent elements; that is, subject and predicate of the sentence as a whole, the modifiers of each, and parts (where there are such) that are neither principal nor subordinate. Be careful to dis- criminate, in cases, between grammatical independence and logical dependence: 1. ’Tis the mind that makes the body rich. 2. Now, Hamlet, where’s Polonius? 3. God willing, I shall persevere in my attempt. 4. Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance. 5. He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. 6. Adders and Serpents, let me breathe awhile ! 7. It is a good thiiig to give thanks unto the Lord. OHAPTEE XXYI. THE SENTENCE — CLASSIFICATION. As to structure: A sentence that expresses only a single act of thought is said to be simple. There may be several things of which something is asserted,, and the sub- ject is then said to be compound: Hope and fear are the bane of human life. There may be several things asserted of the subject, and the predicate is then said to be compound: Charity liopetli all things, lelievetli all things, enduretli all things. The modifiers may be compound: A diligent and prudent man will be successful. Parts which do not modify each other are said to be co-ordinate, — that is, of equal order or rank; as in the preceding sentence, or in the following: The coach will leave the city — in the morning — before sunrise. The test of a simple sentence is, that it comj)rises only words and phrases. If the sentence is of the form, ^ When the sun rose, the ship sailed,'’ it is no longer simple, since it contains two acts of thought, — two distinct subjects, ^sun^ and ‘^ship,'’ and two distinct predicates, ^rose'’ and ‘'sailed,^ yet so put together as to form a whole. Another peculiarity is, that the first part, ‘'when the sun rose, ^ indicates the time of 158 THE SEKTEHCE — CLASSIEICATIOH. 159 sailing, and so modifies ^ sailed^ as a temporal adverb. Such a sentence is said to be complex. i Hence, a complex sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, one of which is principal and the others (clauses) subordinate. If the sentence is of the form, ^ The sun rose, and the ship sailed,'’ it is neither simple nor complex. It is not simple, because it contains more than one combination of subject and predicate; it is not complex, because the state- ments composing it are grammatically independent of each other — neither modifies the other. Such a sentence is said to be compound. ^ Hence a compound sentence consists of two or more co-ordinate sentences. The co-or- dinate parts of a compound sentence are called its members. The members themselves may be simple or complex: (1) One generation blows bubbles, and another bursts them. (2) This part of knowledge is growing, and it will continue to grow till the subject is exhausted. The simple sentence with compound subject or predi- cate is often said to be a contracted equivalent, giving the meaning of two sentences in one. Thus, I saw Fannie and Jessie = I saw Fannie and I saw Jessie. The sentence, however, can not always be so resolved; Two and three are five. James and John carried the pail. As to use: A sentence that merely asserts a fact or states a truth is declarative; as. ^ Latin con, with, and plectere, to twist, = to twist together. 2 Latin con, with, and^joraere, to place, = to^j^ace^together. 160 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. The quality of mercy is not strained. Rose a nurse of ninety years; Set his child upon her knee. The subject of assertion is sometimes made the subject of inquiry. The sentence is then interrogative^ formerly styled direct when it could be answered by yes ^ or no and indirect when it could not be so answered; the first being introduced by the verb or its auxiliary, the second by some interrogative term — pronoun, adjective, or adverb: Have you seen Henry? Who defeated Burgoyne? Where was he defeated? Which book have you? In point of fact, however, these are all of the direct form, and a proper indirect question is a deq)endent one — a clause that involves a question without actually putting it: Forbear to ask what to-morrow will Iring forth. The sentence may be intended to originate some act, and it is then said to be imperative — the mode of its princijial verb: (1) Disturh his hours of rest with restless trances; Afflict him in his bed with bedrid groans. (2) Forgive me. (3) Let us sing the praises of the King of Glory. Other and stronger forms of exjiressing obligation or com- i:)ulsion are made by the use of ^shalh’ and ^ must h ^ You shall go/ ^ You nmst go/ The form in (3) is sometimes abridged by dropping the verb ^let’ [= permit], changing the object to the subject nominative, and the dependent infinitive to a finite: THE SEHTEHCE — CLASSIFICATION. 161 Sing we the praises of our God. Come one, come all. Somebody call my wife. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king! Since the imperative is the form of entreaty or desire, as well as of command, there is no valid objection to calling these exceptional forms imperative sentences, and their verbs imperatives of the first or third person to agree with their nominative subjects. This seems preferable to ex- panding them into ‘Let rnin [to] seize thee,'’ or ‘May ruin seize thee,^ etc. Any sentence that gives passionate expression to hope, joy, desire, fear, anger, grief, or pain, is exclamative . How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, , How complicate, how wonderful is man! Generally it partakes of the interrogative form, and is introduced by ^ who,'’ what,'’ or " how'’: Who would have thought it ! What a piece of work is man! How grandly he moves! Exclamative sentences must be carefully distinguished from exclamative phrases. The same sentence may be in one class and another in different uses. Thus : Shut the door Imperative in form and meaning. Shut the door? .... Imperative in form, hut interrogative. Shut the door! .... Imperative in form, hid exclamative. How he shut the door ! Exclamative in form and meaning. Henry is well Declarative in form and meaning. Henry is well? . . . Formally declarative, logically interroga- tive. Is Henry well? ..... Interrogative in form and meaning. 162 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. The character of the sentence, as a whole, is deter- mined by the essential part of it. Thus, though the fol- lowing lines contain independent, exclamative elements, the leading proposition is interrogative : What ! you, that loved ! And I, that loved ! Shall we begin to wrangle? Similarly, this line is declarative, though it includes an imperative clause; Full loud she sang: ‘ Come hither, love, to me.’ EXERCISES. 1. Distinguish phrases, clauses, and members from sentences: •(1) The anchor clung. (2) His food with his trunk. (3) That your sister has returned. (4) But I am also a man. (5) Support of Troy! (6) We must conquer. (7) Go. (8) Not to know me. (9) As good for a sick man. (10) A peace which consults the good of both parties. (11) Whose hat is this? (12) Whose hat he took. (13) And there was light. (14) Too gay for an old man. (15) How long did he stay? 2. Classify the following sentences (1) as to structure, (2) as to use : (1) They devoured the earth like an army of locusts. (2) He asked, ‘How came I to do this?’ (3) It is too stormy for the boat to leave to-night. (4) What kind of people first inhabited England? (5) Who ever achieved any- thing great in letters, arts, or arms, who was not ambi- tious? (6) How many soldiers were killed in battle? (7) We know not whence or whither it goes. (8) Come as the winds come when navies are stranded. (9) Slow, melting strains their queen’s approach declare. (10) Morning dawned, and all fears were dispelled. (11) When morning dawned, all fears were dispelled. (12) Forbid it. Almighty God! (13) 1 lisped in numbers, THE SEHTEHCE — CLASSIEICATIOH. 163 for the numbers came. (14) Having ridden up to the spot, the enraged otRcer struck the unfortunate man dead with a single blow of his sword. (15) Life is real, life is earnest. (16) God sustains and governs the world. (17) We submit to the society of those who can inform us, but we seek the society of those we can inform. (18) Having decided what was to be done, he did it with might and main. (19) After performing these good offices, the stranger left. (20) When he had performed these good offices, he left. (21) He performed these good offices, and left. (22) The ship left at sunrise. (23) The ship left at the rising of the sun. (24) The ship left when the sun rose. (25) The sun rose, and the ship left. (26) For me to labor and for yoii to be idle would be unjust. (27) For me to labor while you are idle would be unjust. 3. Compose three complex interrogative sentences, and let the de- pendent clause denote time. 4. Compose three exclamative phrases, and three exclamative sen- tences. 5. Compose three compound sentences, in two of which one member shall be interrogative. 6. Compose causal clauses to limit the following statements : (1) We left the city. (2) Cultivate agreeable manners. (3) Be slow to promise. (4) Improve your time. (5) Never reveal secrets. 7. Compose conditional clauses, to limit the following : (1) We shall go. (2) The ice will melt. (3) He can perform the task. (4) The lecture will be postponed. (5) We shall be lost. 8. Compose three simple sentences with compound subjects, and three with compound predicates. 9. Compose five sentences containing the present progressive indica- tive, active voice. 10. Five containing the past progressive active. 164 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 11. Five containing the past perfect active. 12. Five containing the past perfect passive. 13. Five containing the future perfect passive. 14. Six illustrating the correct use of ‘may,’ ‘might,’ ‘can,’ ‘could,’ ‘would,’ ‘should.’ 15. Compose five sentences containing the nojninative absolute, then expand the absolute phrases into clauses. 16. Compose a compound sentence, each of whose members shall be complex. 17. Compose five sentences containing adverbial clauses of purpose, then abridge the clauses into infinitive phrases. 18. Change from the interrogative to the declarative form: (1) When can their glory fade? (2) 0 these women! these women! Could that girl have been playing off any of her coquettish tricks? Was her encouragement of the poor pedagogue all a mere sham to secure the conquest of his rival? Heaven only knows, not I! (3) And for what is all this appearance of bustle and terror? Is it because anything substantial is expected? (4) And where is he to exert Ins talents? At home, to be sure, for where else can he obtain a profitable credit for their exertion ? % CHAPTEE XXTIL THE SENTENCE — ANALYSIS. The process of breaking up a sentence into its com- ponent parts is called Analysis.! The example should be first examined to see whether it is simple, complex, or compound. If simple, distinguish (1) the subject; (2) the modifiers of the subject; (3) the predicate, whether simple or composite verb, or copula and its complement; (4) modifiers of the predicate. The analysis of a complex sentence differs from that of a simple one in no respect, save that clauses do the duty of single words or phrases, and, having been treated first as single parts of speech, are in turn to be resolved into their elements. If the sentence is compound, its co-ordi- nate sentences (members) are to be analyzed separately: (1) The house fell and great was the fall thereof. (2) He goes, hut it is intended that I should remain [== it, that I shoidd remain, is intended.] Words omitted should be supplied. Thus, He is as tall as I [am tall]. I will go, if [it is] possible. Oh, [if] might I see hell and return again, how happy were I then! * Greek ana, up, and lusis, loosing. 1G5 166 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. With the view of having some general form, sufficient to secure a well-arranged statement of construction, the following models are suggested: 1 . TJie potent rod of Amram’s son in Egypt’s evil day, Waved round the coast, up-called a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind. CLASS. SUBJECT. MODIFIERS. PREDICATE. OBJ. MOD. ADT. MOD. Simple Declarative rod the, potent, of Amram’s son, 1 waved round the coast. up-called a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind in Egypt’s evil day 2. When I heard that the train had started before I had arrived at the station where we had agreed to meet, I at once telegraphed. CLASS. SUBJECT. MODIFIERS. PREDICATE. OBJ. MOD. j ADV. MOD. Complex Declarative I telegraphed at once, | when I ... to meet Prin.Sen.= I telegraphed at once. Clauses: 1st degree= lohen I heard • heard that the train had started before ... to meet when 2d degrees that the train had started. train the had started before I arrived at the station ... to meet 3d degree before I arrived at the station ■ arrived at the station where ... to meet 4th degree= where we had agreed to meet we had agreed to meet where. THE SEHTEHCE — ANALYSIS. 167 8. I am monarch of all I survey, My right there is none to dispute; From the centre all round to the sea, I am lord of the fowl and the brute. CLASS, SUB- JECT. MODIFIERS. PREDICATE. mODIPIEBS. Compound Declarative OBJECTIVE. ADVERBIAL. ADJECTIVE. Members: 1. lam monarch of all I survey. I am monarch Of all 1 survey Clause — [that] I survey. ■ survey [that] 2. My right there is none to dispute none to dispute my right is 3. lam lord of the fowl and the brute from the centre all round to the sea. I am lord from the centre, all round to the sea. of the fowl and the brute 4. That orbed maiden with white fire laden. Whom mortals call the moon, Glides glimmering o’er my fieece-like floor, By the midnight breezes strewn. A com^jlex declarative sentence. (1) maiden (2) glides subject. predicate. 168 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAR. ( a that orbed (3) } 1) laden with white fire ( c whom mortals call the moon I adjective enlargements of (1). {d) mortals . . (e) call .... (/) whom the moon subject of c. . . . . predicate of c. . objective enlargement of c. adverbial enlargements of (2). In tlie following diagrammed analyses, a single bracket, [, is used for subject and predicate; and two [ ] for words supplied. A bar, ], separates a subordinate element. A brace, f, cuts off two or more subordinate elements that, with respect to each other, are co-ordinate. Compound elements are unified, as in examj^les 9, 11, 12, 19. A conjunction is underscored. A word doing double duty, as a relative pronoun or a conjunctive adverb, is under- scored twice. Curves, or marks of parenthesis, ( ), en- close indej)endent elements. An underscore and a curve are used to connect a modifier with its base under the circumstances shown in 5, 8, 14, and 19. The first word of a sentence is capitalized wherever it may fall in the diagram. ' 1. Why will people exaggerate?’ people will exaggerate | Why? 2. For us to know our faults is profitable. For us I to know | faults [ our is profitable THE SEHTEHCE — AHALTSIS. 169 3. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of vibration. the musical depends | upon rapidity the of vibration 4. It is easy to find fault. It 1 to find I fault 5. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. Genius can breathe f l_ l^in atmosphere^ the of freedom (only 6. They told him to go to the city. They told f [to] him 1 to go I to city I the 7. They expected him to come home. They expected ] him [ to come [ home 8. He is certainly on the verge of madness. He is on verge ""(certainly the of madness 170 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 9. All forms of the lever, and all the principal kinds of hinges, are found in the body. forms \ All of lever the all the principal of hinges are found | in body [ the 10. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange parentage. /The iof Book of Job from land 1 and of parentage (the ( a / strange ra t strange 11. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed with abundance of hay and grain, horses j The 'S • 0 I (H i cattle I the were fastened ( in stables i i ( same "nj r of hay {were fed | with abundance 1 and [ [of] grain 12. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with the greatest schools of Europe. Oxford took At opening \ ( the rank | with schools the greatest 1 of Europe THE SEHTEHCE — ANALYSIS. 171 13. Gold is heavier than iron. ~Gold is heavier 1 than iron [is heavy] 14. He were no lion, were not Romans hinds. Ille were lion | no L [if] Romans were hinds L- (not 15. That the earth is a sphere is easily proved, That |-e: earth 1 the is sphere ] a is proved ] easily 16« ‘Where is Abel, thy brother?’ smote the ears of the guilty Cain. ‘Abel I brother ] thy I is I Where?’ smote 1 ears \ . f ' I of Cain j the guilty 17. Religion — who can doubt it? — is the noblest of themes for the exercise of intellect. who \ Lean doubt [Religion is noblest it?) the of themes I for exercise - the of intellect 172 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 18. Be temperate in youth, or you will have to be abstinent in old age. [you] Be temperate [ in youth you will have 1 to be abstinent | in age | old 19o Once there was a quarrel between the eyes and the nose about the spectacles, which (so said the nose) were undoubtedly in- tended for, him and not for his two neighbors, the eyes. quarrel eyes | the \ nose jP' 1 the about spectacles was I Once (there) , / r nose the\ ch I . , , I \ Lsaid so / which were intended 4 PI EXERCISES. undoubtedly for him his Si for neighbors two Classify and diagram the sentences in — (1) A rich gouty man troubled with disease in his feet, went to a physician distinguished for his skill, promising to do exactly what the physician ordered, if only he would cure him. Seeing his patient deprived of the use of his feet, and too lazy to use them, the physician took him up into a room containing no chair, couch, or seat of any kind, and having a floor lined with iron. There he * Or refer it to the supplied ‘ were intended.’ THE SENTENCE — ANALYSIS. 173 left him and went out, locking the door behind him. Presently the rich man found his feet growing unpleas- antly hot. Irritated at this he called out, but no one answered. Hobbling to the door on his crutches, he found it locked. By this time his feet, heated by the hot iron floor, pained him so much that he began to raise them, lifting first one, then the other, at first slowly, then more and more quickly. In this way, forced to use his legs, he found the use of them grow more and more easy, and was cured against his will. (2) The Sun and the Wind were one day disputing which was the stronger. On seeing a traveler approach, ‘Cease your bawling,’ said the Sun to the Wind, ‘and let us decide the question by doing and not by talking. Who- ever can succeed in taking away that traveler’s cloak shall be confessed to be the conqtieror : what do you say to deciding thus?’ ‘I agree,’ cried the Wind; ‘but would you mind my trying first?’ ‘Not a bit,’ said the other; and straightway the Wind set to work. First he tried blowing quietly, then more furiously; and at last he blew so loud that you could not have heard yourself speak for his howling; but all his blustering was in vain. So far from giving up his cloak, the traveler oifiy drew it closer round him. Now it was the Sun’s turn to try. He began by driving away the clouds that the Wind had gathered : then he warmed the air with his bright face till the traveler was forced to loosen his cloak because of the heat. On seeing this, the Sun redoubled his efforts, till at last, fainting with the heat, the weary traveler flung himself on a bank to rest, after stripping himself of his cloak and coat as well. (3) A little boy running carelessly along the street, knocked against an old woman carrying a basket of eggs on her head. Down fell the basket smashing all the eggs. The thoughtless boy at first ran on ; but, looking round and seeing the people staring and the old woman beginning 174 LESSO^fS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. to cry, lie turned back, saying, ‘I am very sorry; I would not have knocked against you it I had seen you.’ ‘Yes, master,’ replied the old woman, looking sadly at the fragments of her broken eggs lying about the dirty pavement, ‘but your sorrow will not mend my eggs, nor feed my grandchildren waiting for bread at home.’ OHAPTEE XXYIII. THE SENTENCE — GOVERNMENT AND CONCORD. When one word requires another to be put in a par- ticular form, as He struck me,’ it is said to govern it, and the requirement is called government. When govern- ment involves a correspondence of inflection — as ^ The boy run-s,^ ^The boy-s run^ — it is called concord. i But as the English sentence is now constructed with so little dependence upon formal change, government and concord must be held to regard the thought as well as the outward sign. Agreeably to this extended sense of the terms, we proceed to enumerate the chief principles regu- lating the union of words : 1. The subject of a sentence is in the nominative case. This rule, obviously, has its chief application to the pronouns.^ It is seldom violated except by the untaught. Mistakes like (1) and (2) are of the grossest kind; (3) occurs most frequently in elliptical sentences: (1) Them are good, (3) John and me went. (3) Is she taller than me [am tall] ? The following may be more easily pardoned: This is a man whom [who] I think deserves encouragement ^Latin Concordia, agreement. 175 176 LESSOifS II^ E]STGLISH GKAMMAK. 2. The subject of the root-infinitive is in the objective case. 1 I saw him go. Let v,s rise. For me to act thus is base ingratitude,® Not — Let he who made thee, [to] answer that. When the subject of the infinitive coincides with that of of the sentence^, the case is nominativej aS;, ‘He was seen to depart.^ 3. A noun or ])ronoun, directly Iwiiting another noun, IS in the possessive case. And far by Ganges’ banks at night, Is heard the tiger’s roar. I was opposed to his going. The moon’s attracting the water causes the tides. Ii is caused by the earth’s revolving on its axis. r This rule is modified, as we have seen, by two princi- ples,— clearness and euphony. The first forbids putting the possessive sign on a word far removed from the base of the phrase: Maximilian the Emperor’s palace. The Emperor Maximilian’s palace. Her Majesty Queen Victoria’s government. The second governs everywhere in language, however sub- ordinately. Thus, in a series of possessives denoting ^ The subject of the infinitive may be regarded, conventionally, as the object of the principal verb. Logically, it is but a part — the base — of the complete object. (See Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar^ p. 217.) ® There being no antecedent term of relation, we prefer to regard the preposition in such constructions as without governing power, having a merely introductory function. The omission of ‘ for ’ gives the Latin idiom : Facinus est vinciri civem Bomanum [A Eoman citizen to be bound (That a Eoman citizen shonld be bound, For a Eoman citizen to be bound) is a crime]. —Cicero. THE SEHTEJsrCE — ^ GOVEliHMENT AND CONCORD. 177 common possession,, the sign is annexed but once; ^ James, Peter, and Henry’s father.^ But separate j)ossession: ^ James^si, Peter’s, and Henry’s father.’ Eegular construc- tion would require, ‘'This book is your’] but, to avoid harshness, an illogical but euphonious s is added. Chaucer writes : I wol be your in alle that ever I may. Again, regularity would require, a friend of me,’ ^ that farm of Johnson,’ ^that ugly face of him’; but ^friend of mine,’ ^farm of Johnson’s,’ ‘face of his,’ have a more pleasing sound. 4. The olject of an action or limit of a loreposition is in the objective case. Who fed me from her gentle breast And hushed me in her arms to rest, And on my cheeks sweet kisses pressed? ^ This rule appears in pronouns only. It is not likely to be violated except when the object is at a distance from the governing word: Thou, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. Who should I meet the other day but my old friend? TWio^did you get that book from? The case of the indirect object, formerly distinguished by a dative ending, might better be called dative-objective: I made him a coat [= made a coat for him]. They paid him his wages [= paid wages to him.] Forgive us our debts [= forgive to us]. She asked him his name [= asked of him]. The preposition, though it may be used to bring out the * ‘ Charles’s affairs.’— ‘Louis's xeign.' —Macaulay, ‘ Kiug James’s Bible.’— G. P. Marsh. 178 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. dative relation, is not (if nnexj)ressed) to be considered left out, any more than ^ of ^ is to be understood in God’s love’= Love of God. "We have elsewhere spoken, also, of the adverbial use of the objective to express time, space, and value. 5„ Appositives, assumptive or predicative, are in the same case as the nouns they modify. (1) Peter the hermit preached the first Crusade. (2) Ask the murderer — him who has steeped his hands in blood. (3) It is I. (4) Whom did you think it to be? (5) They elected him [to be] president. (6) They named him [to be] John. (7) We will have him as our leader. (8) Which boasts two various powers in one, To cut as well as shine. Not — This shy creature, my brother says, is me. If there is one character more base than another, it is him. The appositive relation in (1), (2), and (8) is assumed; in (3) it is asserted ; and the character of (3) shades off into that of (4), (5), (G), and (7). ‘Him yto toe'] president,’ for instance, resembles ‘^Ile is president.’ Observe the use of ^as’ in (7) and the co-ordinating use of ‘as well as’ in (8). Similarly, ‘The Puma, or American lion, is a native of South America.’ 6. Pronouns ayree in gender, number, and person leith the nouns which they represent. Ye stones, in which my gore will not sink, but Reek up to heaven ! Ye skies, ivhich will receive it! Thou Sun, ivhich shin’st on these things ! and Thoii, Who kindlest and who quenchest suns ! attest. THE SEHTEHCE — ^GOVERNMENT AND CONCORD. 179 A pronoun relating to several antecedents of different persons or genders, sliould agree with the first person rather than the second or third, and with the second person rather than the third, and with the masculine rather than the feminine; (1) John and I will take our books. (2) You and Emily are learning your lesson. (3) If anyone in this audience dissents, let him rise. When the reference is to two or more singular objects, the pronoun is plural if they are tfiken collectively, as in (1) and (2); but singular if they are taken distributively, as ^ Every man and boy took off Ms hat.^ A collective noun taken as singular is of neuter gender; taken as plural, it requires the plural pronoun: The army honors itself. Can Parliament be so dead to its dignity? The clergy began to withdraw themselves. In personification, the gender is lawfully changed: The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mould. A j)ronoun with two or more singular antecedents, con- nected by ‘'or'’ or ‘^nor,^ must be singular. If one is plu- ral, it should be placed last, and the pronoun should agree with it: When he shoots a squirrel, a rabbit, or a bird, he gives it away. Neither the mother nor her children were aware of their danger. The use of the relative ‘ that ^ for ‘ who ^ or ‘ which ^ has been mentioned. It should be so used (1) when there are two antecedents, one requiring ‘who’’ and the other ‘ which (2) after the interrogative ‘who,'’ to avoid repe- tition; (3) after ‘same'’ and the superlative degree: 180 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMM AE. (1) I met the man and the dog that you saw. (2) Who that heard his eloquence could resist it? (3) It was the most beautiful day that I had ever known. (4) It was the same story that I had read the week before. A few examiiles will suggest the most frequent and im- portant errors in the use of the English pronoun: (1) She studied his countenance like an inscription, and de- ciphered each rajA expression that crossed it, and stored them [^7] in her memory. (2) Each of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, and content themselves to excel within their respective districts. (3) He that pricketh the ear maketh it to show loer knowledge. (4) Who ever thinks of learning the grammar of their tongue, before they are very good grammarians? (5) Every person's liappiness depends in part upon the respect they meet in the world. It may he said that (5) illustrates the preference of the plural when both genders are involved. But it seems quite as proper that ^his^ should be ai^plied to both, as that ^man^ in a generic sense should include both male and female. Doubtless the plural is often used merely as a mode of getting out of the difficulty. Sometimes strict- ness is sought to be preserved by the use of ^ he or she/ but this is felt to be cumbersome: The institution of property, reduced to its essential elements, consists in the recognition, in each person, of a right to the exclusive disposal of what he or she has produced by their own exertions. — J. S. Mill. 7. Adjectives, so far as they are subject to formal change or to a restrictive application, conform to the nouns which they modify. THE SEHTEHCE — GOVERHMEHT AHD COHCORD. 181 Hence tlie following sentences are incorrect: (1) Those kind of things. (2) These kind of sufferings. (3) A feeble senate and enervated people. (4) Blessed be the man that provideth for the sick and [the^ needy. (5) A cherubim. (6) A phenomena. Tlie omission of tlie Article in (3) and (4) implies but a single object of thought, whereas in each there are plainly two. ‘A,’ moreover, if held to be understood, would not be the proper form to use before ‘enervated.'’ In (5) and (6), there is an inconsistency of number, the plural instead of the singular — ‘cherub,^ ‘■phenomenon.-’ A period of time, however, may be treated as a unit: This many summers on a sea of glory. 8. A verb agrees ivitli its subject in number and person, I wait. lie waits. Ye stars, which are the poetry of heaven. Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘and’ require a plural verb; connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor,’ they take a verb in the singular: Mars and Jupiter have been visible this week. To be or not to be is the question. Neither he nor his brother has the book. In the application of this nrle, primary regard must be paid to the meaning. It will thus appear that the follow- ing are correct: ‘The scholar and the poet ivas also the Christian and the patriot. (Different designations of the same object.) 182 LESSOlSrS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. ‘ Each man, each woman, each child, has a duty to discharge. (Compound subject taken distributively. Elliptical usage: ‘Each man [has], each woman [has].’) ‘ The wheel and axle ivas out of repair.’ (The two things named make a unit by their combination.) ‘Why is dust and ashes proud.’ (Two words used for one meaning.) ‘ H\\Gfleei is under orders to set sail.’ (Predicate applies to the whole mass.) ‘ A considerable ^vere induced to rpiit the body.’ (Pre- dicate applies to the individuals of the collection acting separately.) ‘The wages of sin is death.’ (Form plural, but meaning singular: ‘The consequence of sin is death.’) ‘Whether thou or I am in fault.’ '■He or they are to be pro- moted.’ (Virtually contracted co-ordinate sentences; verb agrees with the nearest subject.) Violations of tlie rule often arise from a negligent refer- ence of the verb to some nearer word that is not the real subject: The condition of the crops slimv that the country has suffered. It is observable that each one. of the letters hear date after his banishment. Each of the ladies, like two excellent actresses, were perfect in their parts. 9. In the use of irregular veils the joast tense should he distinguished from the past participile. The book lies on the shelf : it lay there a week ago, and has lain there ever since. The past particij)le, unlike the simple past-tense form, is used passively and goes with the auxiliaries. Ignorance or disregard of this principle accounts for such abuse of grammar as — I seen him fall. John done it. THE SEHTEISTCE — GOVEEHMEHT AHD COHCOBD. 183 I have did it. We have saw Jumbo. He had wrote to her. He sent a letter torote on parchment. 1 0. The true sense of a verb-auxiliary should harmonize with the idea to be expressed by it. May is tlie sign of possibility or permission; can, of ability; and must, of necessity. Wlien mere futurity is to be expressed, use shall in the first person, will in the second and third. When resolve or compulsion is to be expressed, the first person requires will ; the second and third, shall. Thus : ( I shall Simple Future -< You will ( He will t I will Resolve or Compulsion ■< You, shall ( He shall 1 1 . The time indicated by the tense-forms should har- monize with that indicated by other parts of the sentence. The following, therefore, are incorrect: (1) I ^peeted to have found [to find] him. (2j I should have liked to have seen [to see] him. (3) I hoped that you woxdd have [would] come. (4) He %vas [has been] absent this whole week . (5) If you are not careful, you might [may] fall overboard. (6) I shall be much gratified if you would [will] favor us with your company. Existing facts and general truths, however, require the present tense: He saw that virtue is advantageous. He believed that the earth is spherical. 184 ■LESSONS m ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 12. In general, jparts correspondent or alilce in thought should he similarly constructed. This principle forbids: (1) The union of the solemn and ordinary forms — He stoppetli not to consider his ways, and presses on thought- lessly to ruin. (2) The union of auxiliary -with simple forms — I always have [been] and always shall he of this opinion. Did he not confess his fault and entreated [entreat] you to forgive him ? This may serve for almost any book that has [been], is, or shall he published. ‘^Be’ ■will not harmonize with Miave/ nor entreated^ with ^did/ nor "published" (in the passive sense) with "has." (3) The union of singular with plural forms — ■ Sparta! Sparta! why in slumbers Lethargic dost thou lie? Awake and join thy numbers To Athens, old ally; Leonidas recalling. That chief of ancient song. Who saved ye once from falling. The terrible — the strong. (4) The union of normal with abnormal forms, and of dissimilar elements by co-ordinate connectives — He embraced the cause of liberty faintly, and pursued it ivith- out resolution [irresolutely]. When ignorance is not wilful and sin [sinful]. He begged him at the same time carefully to preserve for him his Highland garb and accoutrements, particularly the arms, curious in themselves, and to which the friendship of the donors gave additional value. THE SEifTElS’CE — GOTERNMENT AND CONCORD. 185 We have in the last example a compound modifier of ^arms.'’ Of its two members, the first is a phrase, and the second a clause. Both should be phrases, or both clauses: ^ which were curious in themselves,^ or ^rendered addi- tionally valuable by the friendship of the donors.’ Other- wise, the incongruity may be avoided by the omission of ‘ and.’ The blunder is very common, especially with those who either do not perceive the true relation of parts, or fail to regard it. (5) The useless introduction of new words, and the improper union of correlatives — He was just one of those men that [whom] the country can’t afford to lose, and whom it is so very hard to replace. I have amused myself prophesying, as we drove into town, how this ugly lot of suburbs would join with that ugly lot, and that there would soon be one continuous street. Natural language, neither bookish nor vulgar, neither redolent of the lamp or of the kennel. He neither knew the manner in which, or the place where, his journey might be next interrupted by his invisible attendant. The error in the last two is double: ^neither’ should be put directly before the element upon which it throws its force, — the adjunct in the one case, the object in the other; and its only admissible correlative is ‘^nor.’ It may be proper, at this point, to notice the prevalent confusion in the use of ‘^or’ and ^nor’ in a negative sen- tence. It is sometimes difficult to determine which word should be used to continue a negative sense after a preced- ing negative. Length of parts or emphasis of distinction would seem to give the preference to ‘^nor’: The king has no arbitrary power to give him ; your Lordships have not; nor the Commons; 7ior the whole Legislature. — Burke. - . 186 LESSOiTS lif ENGLISH GEAMMAE. Yet Paul did not waste all his hours in this idle vaporing, nor in the pleasures of the table. — Prescott. I can not tell which way his Majesty went, nor whether there is any one with him. — Fielding. ‘ Or ^ may be preferable, or even necessary, if tlie parts are plainly affected by tlie preceding negative, if tliey are not emphatically distinguished, or if they are short and closely connected : He was certainly not very reverent in his conduct or in his writings. — Dean Alford. No tie of gratitude or of honor could bind him. — Macaiday. This was not to be ascribed chiefly or solely to political an i mosi ty . — Ihid. So long as they did not meddle with polities or religion. — Prescott. EXERCISES. Some of the following are correct, some are incorrect. Apply the preceding principles to the justiflcation of the former and the correction of the latter : 1. He wrote an history. 2. These sort of pens are good. 3. Them’s my sentiments. 4. Will I be there in time? 5. If you will call I shall be happy to receive you. 6. It was requested that no person would leave the room. 7. I shall never see him again. 8. I will never see him again. 9. I will be drowned; nobody shall help me. 10. What a awful accident! 11. He owned an old and new house. 12. He drove a horse and-ox. 13. When will we go? 14. I would not have dared done it. 15. This is very easy done. SENTElSrCE — GOVERNMElfT AND CONCOED. 187 - 16. He seldom or ever come here. 17. No man ever bestowed such a gift to his kind, 18. Was it her? ; 19. The building'^the house is going on. 20. Much depends on this rule being observed. 21. Botli Cato and Cicero loved their country. 22. Every person is the architect of their own fortune. 23. If either Nellie or Mamie is absent from her seat at nine to-morrow, she will be kept in. 24. She suffers more than me. 25. My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 26. I knew it to be he. 27. Let him be who he may. 28. He saw a red, white, and blue flag. 29. He saw a red, a white, and a blue flag. 30. To a great and almost indefinite extent. 31. The oral or written forms of a language. 32. I’d rather not go. 33. Of all other vices, lying is the meanest. 34. Do you remember who he was? 35. The society of these places are always changing. 36. Economy, not mean savings, bring wealth. 37. The nobility were present. 38. Not a drum, not a funeral note was heard. 39. They supposed it was I. 40. The dog’s ear was cut off. 41. Whom did you send the letter to? 42. Was John and James’ confession alike? 43. Let my soul live, and it shall praise thee. 44. Let the House of Commons be warned — let it warn itself. 45. The jury were dismissed. 46. The council has chosen its president. 47. Either he or I is right. 48. Was I so disposed, I could not gratify you. 49. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 50. Go and lay down. 61. She come very soon after you had went away. 188 LESSONS m ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 52. I had rode a short distance when the storm began to gather. 63. He run till he was forced to lay down. 54. I remember when it was laid. 55. Between you and I, he is losing his mind. 56. They that are diligent, I will reward. 57. Not one in a thousand could have done so well as he. 58. The North and South Pole. 59. She has less friends than I. 60. It is now five days since you have arrived. 61. Whom are you looking for? 62. The ends of a divine and human legislation are very different. 63. The ebb and flow of tides were explained by Newton. 64. Here come my old friend and teacher. 65. I never have nor ever will forget it. 66. They told me of his having failed. 67. The building must be either a church or a school. 68. Either you or I are to blame. 69. The man, together with those who accompanied him, were killed. 70. When will we three meet again? 71. He taught that the soul was iramoidal. 72. The great historian and the essayist has passed away. 73. The books were lain upon the table. 74. Every tub must stand upon their own bottom. 75. I am afraid of the man dying before a doctor can come. 76. The rise and fall of nations are an interesting study. 77. More than four-fifths of the property belongs to Prot- estants. 78. The fact of me going away was of no consequence. 79. It did him no more good than his afterward trying to pacify the barons with lies. 80. Nor heaven nor earth have been at peace to-niglit. 81. Rapt into future times the bard begun. 82. If I stretch a catgut or any other cord between ray fingers, I will make it smaller. THE SEHTEHCE — GOVEEHMEHT AND COHCOED. 189 83. And now the years a numerous train have ran. 84. Ethics, with atheism, are impossible. 85. The camp was almost immediately broke up. 86. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss to understand several passages. 87. A few months before, he v/as willing to have hazarded all the horrors of civil war. 88. Two young men have discovered that there was no God. 89. Everyone must be judge of their own feelings. 90. No mightier than thyself or me. 91. Sorrow not as them that have no hope. 92. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me. 93. Neither of which are taken into account. 94. The fact of such an objection having been made. 95. It was expected that his first act would have been to have sent for Lords Grey and Grenville. 96. The reason is perspicuous why no French plays when translated have, or ever can, succeed on the English stage. 97. Both minister and magistrate is compelled to choose between his duty and his reputation. 98. The richness of her arms and apparel were conspicuous in the foremost rank. 99. The literature of France, Germany, and England, are at least as necessary for a man born in the nineteenth century as that of Rome and Athens. 100. Concerning some of them, little moi’e than the names are to be learned from literary history. 101. Sir Thomas More in general so writes it, although not many others so late as him. 102. Homer, as well as Virgil, were transcribed and studied on the banks of the Rhine and Danube. 103. America, as well as Europe, has received letters from the one and religion from the other. 104. Every one of this grotesque family were the creatures of national genius. LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 105. Those whose profession or whose reputation regulate public opinion. 106. Everything that painting, music, and even place furnish, were called in to interest the audience. 107. Few, if any town or village in the south of England, has a name ending in hy. 108. Professor Sedgwick, a man of eminence in a particular walk of natural science, but who should not have trespassed into philosophy, had lately published his discourses. 109. At least I am resolved that the country shall see who it has to thank for whatever may happen. 110. And the persons who, at one period of their life, might take chief pleasure in such narrations, at another may be brought into a temper of high tone and acute sensibility. 111. A constable will neither act cheerfully or wisely. 112. Frequented by every fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water. 113. If you were here, you would find three or four in the parlor after dinner whom (you would say) passed their time agreeably. OHAPTEE XXIX. THE SENTENCE — ORDER. Much freedom in the order of words is permitted by an inflected language, because the w^ords, wherever placed, show their mutual relations by their forms. In English, however, position is almost the only thing that shows the connection of parts, and the study of arrangement becomes, therefore, of great importance to all who would write or speak to the best advantage. 1. The usual order puts the adjective before the noun, the subject before the verb, and the verb before its objective or adverbial modifier. (1) Every man’s task is his life-preserver. (2) Each human soul is the first-created inhabitant of its own Eden. (3) The whole period of youth is one essentially of formation, edification, instruction. (4) Any nobleness begins at once to refine a man’s features, — any meanness or sensuality to imbrute them. (5) The man who seeks one thing in life, and but one. May hope to achieve it before life be done ; But he who seeks all things, wherever he goes. Only reaps, from hopes which around him he sows, A harvest of barren regrets. 2. J list as unusual sights and sounds are apt to impress us more poioerfully than those ivith which we are familiar, 191 192 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. SO a thought may be rendered more striking by using words out of their customary gface — that is, by trans20osition, or inversion. (1) Here lies the road to Rome. (2) So work the honey bees. (3) Then shook the hills, with thunder riven. (4) Then shrieked the timid, and stood still the brave. (5) What a piece of work is man 1 (6) How low, how little, are the crowd! (7) Flashed all their sabres bare. (8) Silver and gold have I none. (9) And all the air a solemn stillness holds. (10) ‘ Old man eloquent,’ ‘ pastures new,’ ‘ her sea-cave dim.’ (11) Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery? The inversion is very often accomplished by commencing with an adverb^ as in (1), (2), (3), (4), and (6). The pronoun ^ it is frequently employed for this purpose : It is upon record that a battle between two armies was once broken off by an earthquake. The commonest example is the case of there b There lies upon the other side of the wide Atlantic a beautiful island, famous in story and in song. The transposition of the simple adjective, as in (10), makes an elegant poetical variety. The exclamative and the interrogative forms are in themselves a departure from the regular order; as ‘'Are you coming?'’ But in (5), (6), and (11) the transposition is for emphasis. The writer or speaker desiring to vary his manner or to express his thought more strongly, exchanges the calm for the pas- sionate type of sentence; or he prefers to put in the form of a question what he neither doubts nor expects to be THE SEHTEHCE — OEDEK. 193 answered. This breaks up routine, arrests the attention as if to demand a reply, and therefore is frequently resorted to in oratory, as well as in all discourse where vivacity or force is sought. The subject is also thrown out of its usual position when the conjunction is suppressed in conditional clauses, and when ‘'neither^ or ‘'nor,’ signifying ‘^and not/ is put before the verb: Were I in his place, I should resign. This was his fear, nor was the apprehension groundless. 3. Clearness requires that modifiers should he as near as possible to the parts modified. (1) Wanted. — A young man to take charge of a pair of horses, of a religious turn of mind. (2) We have two school-rooms sufficiently large to accommodate four hundred pupils, three stories high. (3) A child was run over by a heavy wagon, four years old, wearing a short pink dress and bronze boots, whose parents are not yet found. The remedy for (1) and (2) is obvious — transposition of the italicized modifiers. There is no sufficient remedy for (3) but to resolve it into separate statements. Wrong arrangement leads, in general, either to a wrong sense, as above, or to a doubtful one. Other and common instances of the first are: (1) It is also omy to occur three times. [. . . three times (2) It is said this can only be filled in thus. [ . . . filled in only thus.] (3) Which can only be decided when those circumstances are known. [ • . . only when.] (4) The first could be only imputed to the Just indignation of the gods. 194 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. (5) One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to be baked. (6) By greatness, I do not only mean [mean not only] the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole view. (7) The distinction is observed in French, but never appears [never] to have been made. (8) In all abstract cases where we merely speak of numbers the verb is better singular. (9) The beaux of that day used the abominable art of painting their faces, as ivell as the ivomen. (10) It is the repetition of the period in somewhat a different form. Adverbs have been likened to sauces, which must be taken only with those dishes that they are designed to accompany. Note the dillerence between ‘'I washed only my hands’’ and ^ I only washed my hands.’ Especial care must be bestowed on ^either . . . or/ ^neither . . . nor.’ Improperly placed they produce an ill-balanced effect, like a pair of crookedly-hung pictures: (1) He was neither fitted by abilities nor disposition to answer the wishes of his mother and sister. (2) He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed nor deceit. (3) I am neither an ascetic in theory or in practice. Ill this connection one point remains to be considered. Shall we say ^the three first’ or ^the first three.’ If we adopt the former order, it is asked ^ How can three be first?’ If the latter, it seems to be imjilied that there is a second three, a third three, and so on. Difficulties attach to both forms, but both are proper and are used by the best writers. i * Both are correct, but for different concepts. ‘ The first three ’ expresses the fact that a series of consecutive numbers are arranged in groups of three each, of which the first group is taken; ‘the three first ’ expresses that there are three consecutive series, of which the first co-ordinate numbers are taken. THE SEHTEHCE — OKDER. 195 4. Every pronoun should have a distinct reference. Obscurity of reference may be avoided sometimes by changing the order, sometimes by changing the number of one of the antecedents, sometimes by substituting the direct for the indirect narrative (1) The fruit was in glass cans ivhich we ate. (2) The barons were summoned by their kings when they were compelled by their wants or their fears to have recourse to their aid. (3) The farmer went to his neighbor, and told him that his cattle were in his field. Better: (1) Tlie fruit which we ate, was in giass cans. (2) The barons were summoned by their king when he was compelled by his wants or his fears to have recourse to their aid. (3) The farmer went to his neighbor, and said, ‘ Your cattle are in my field.’ 5. Energy is gained by a gradual ascent of thought and expression. This is called Climax. 2 (1) Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they ministers of Christ. I am more. (2) The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent — augmented into a river — expanded into a sea. That order of words, therefore, will always be most agree- able, where, without obscuring the sense, the most impor- tant ideas, the longest members, and the most sonorous words bring up the rear. The following can be improved; * The direct form gives the thought of another in his own words ; the Indirect gives his thought only, not the words. [See pp. 203 (9), 216, 220.] ® Greek klirmx, a ladder, or staircase. 196 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. (1) A room comfortable and large. (2) It is great to labor, to suffer, to live, for great public ends. (3) Men of the best sense liave been toiiched, more or less, with these groundless horrors and presages of futurity, upon surveying the most indifferent works of nature. Better; (1) A room large and comfortable. (2) It is great to live, to labor, to suffer, for great public ends. (3) Men of the best sense have, upon surveying the most indif- ferent works of nature, been toiiched more or less with these groundless horrors and presages of futurity. The practice of throwing the preposition to the end of the sentence is of Saxon origin: The ills that flesh is heir to. — Sliahesjjeare. Houses are built to live in, and not to look on. — Bacon. Hath God a name to curse by? — Bonne. To find some obscure retreat to die in. — Prescott. A force of cultivated opinions for him to appeal to. — Arnold. This construction is especially adapted to familiar dis- course. To transpose the preposition will render the ex- pression more stately, hut will often weaken it. 6. Emphatic wmEs should le placed in emphatic posi- tions,— for the most part, at the deginning or at the end of the sentence. While the beginning, as the first to strike the attention, is emphatic, the end, as a rule, is more so; for at the latter point there is an unwonted pause, the mind is detained, and consequently an important idea here can not but make the deeper impression: (1) On whatever side we contemplate Homer, what principally strikes us is his wonderful invention. THE SEHTEHCE — OEDER. 197 (2) Lord help you, sir, they are not angry with one another; they have no cause of quarrel, but their country thinks that there should be a pause. Hence, to emphasize the grammatical snoject uniisnally, it must be removed from its usual place. Tliis is true likewise of the grammatical predicate: (1) Blessed are the peace-makers. (2) Sad and weary was the march to Valley Forge. (3) Louder and louder the deep thunder rolled, as through the myriad halls of some vast temple in the sky ; fiercer and brighter became the lightning, more and more heavily the rain poured down. It will be seen that the effect is here enhanced by the novelty of inversion. The strength of the following sentence consists largely in the stress which the predicate position gives to modi- fiers: A question so abrupt^ upon a subject so momentous, requires consideration. 7. Avoid placing an adverh between Ho’ and the in- finitive, as hi Ho really tcnoio the man.’ EXERCISES. The following are miscellaneous ; amend such as are faulty, and state the principle involved : 1 . Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil. 2. It is impossible continually to be at work. 3. The same laws obtain through the whole system, most probably, in which we are counted. 4. I have considered the subject with a good deal of atten- tion, upon which I was desired to communicate my thoughts. 198 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. Nothing which is not right can be great ; nothing can be suitable to the dignity of the human mind which rea- son condemns, 6. It is not from this world that any source of comfort can arise to cheer the gloom of the last hour. 7. It is ordained by Providence that nothing shall be ob- tained in our present state that is truly valuable, except it be with difficulty and danger. 8. .We can not doubt but all the proceedings of Providence will appear as equitable, when fully understood and completely intelligible, as now they seem irregular. 9. He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he became submissive. 10. The good man not only deserves the respect but the love of his fellow-beings. 11. We should carefully examine into, and candidly pass judgment on, our faults. 12. Gentlemen are not requested to enter the ladies’ cabin without permission. 13. All that glitters is not gold. 14. The committee would further suggest some change in the internal arrangement of the building, as a large num- ber of seats have long been occupied by the scholars that have no backs. 15. Solomon, the son of David, who built the temple at Jeru- salem, was the richest monarch of his age. 16. It appears that there are, by a late calcidation, nearly twenty-five millions of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland. 17. Neither can we admit that he was formed by himself without the greatest absurdity, or by inere accident. 18. Having not known or having not considered the subject, he declined expressing any opinion. 19. Under all its labors, hope is the mind’s solace; and the situations whicli exclude it entirely are few. 20. She also befooled me for, as she called it, my intended desperate adventure. THE SEHTEHCE — ORDER. 199 21. The possession of Jacob Torson’s, the publisher, heir. 22. These flowers smell very sweetly and look beautifully. 23. Have you no other reason but this? 24. The spirit, and not the letter of the law, are what we ought to follow. 25. She walked with the lamp across the room still burning. 26. Did you expect to have heard it ? 27. He showed me two kinds, but I did not buy any of them. 28. His honorable and amiable disposition were much praised. 29. If we could only hold our tongues, everything will suc- ceed. 30. We would be greatly mistaken, if we suppose wealth and rank exempt from care and toil. 31. A great stone that I happened to find after a long search by the sea- shore, served me for an anchor. 32. Oswald not only communicated a copy of his commission but a part of his instructions and a letter from the Secretary of State. 33. Nor does this false modesty expose us only to such actions as are indiscreet. 34. The knight, seeing his habitation reduced to so small a compass, and himself in a manner shut out of his own house, upon the death of his mother, ordered all the apartments to be flung open. 35. When I hear a person use a queer expression, or pro- nounce a name in reading differently from his neighbors. 36. The smooth monotony of the leading religious topics, as managed by the French orators, under the treatment of Jeremy Taylor, receives at each turn of the sentence a new flexure. 37. I remember when the French band of the ‘Guides’ were in this country, reading in the ‘Illustrated News.’ 38. He left the room very slowly repeating his determination not to obey. 39. Hence the despotic state will be generally successful, if a contest occurs, in the outset. 300 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 40. One species of bread, of coarse quality, was only allowed to be baked. 41. I have now and tlien inserted in the text, characters of books that I have not read, on the faith of my guides. 42. Wolsey left at his death many buildings which he had begun, in an unfinished state, and which no one ex- pects to see complete. 43. The style is uncouth and hard ; but with great defects of style, which should be the source of perpetual delight, no long poem will be read. 44. I shall have a comedy for you, in a season or two at farth- est, that I believe will be worth you acceptance. 45. He blew out his brains after bidding his wife good-bye with a gun. 46. A piano for sale by lady about to cross the Channel in an oak case with carved legs. 47. The Moor seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy, smothers her. 48. Sir Morton Peto spoke of the notion that the national debt might be repudiated with absolute contempt. 49. People have been crying out that Germany never could be an aggressive power a great deal too soon. 50. An unquestioned man of genius. 51. A master who is essentially a crammer can not be pre- vented from continuing to cram by any power on earth. 52. They followed the advance of the courageous party, step by step, through telescopes. 53. Few people learn anything that is worth learning easily. 54. The hardship is that in these times one can neither speak of kings or queens without suspicion of politics or per- sonalities. 55. It is not necessary in such conversation, to accurately define the meaning of everything that is said. 56. Climbing to the top of the hill, the Atlantic ocean was seen. OHAPTEE XXX. THE SENTENCE — SYNTHESIS AND VARIETY. Synthesis 1 is placing parts together so as to form a whole. It is therefore the opposite of analysis. Thus, suppose a sentence to have been resolved as follows: (1) I was a child. (2) Only five years. (3) Goldsmith took me on his knee. (4) It was evening. (5) He was drinking coffee. (6) My father was drinking coffee. (7) Goldsmith began to play with me. (8) This was an amiable act. (9) I returned it with ingratitude. (10) It was the ingratitude of a peevish brat. (11) I gave him a slap. (12) I slapped him on the face hard. In weaving together these detached elements we have to consider how they are related in thought or idea, so as to be able to arrange them in proper order and to use proper connectives. The main thought, for instance, might appear to be (3); (2) an attribute of the predicate in (1); (1), (2), and (4) temporal circumstances of the predicate in (3); (3) enlarged by (5), (6), and (7); (9) opposed to (8); (10) an attribute of ingratitude ^ in (9); (11) and (12) modal circumstances of returned ^ in (9) ; and so on. ^ Greek syn, together, and thesis, placing. 202 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAE. They may be combined into a simple, a complex, or a compound sentence: (1) One evening, Goldsmith, drinking coffee with my father, took me (a child of five years) on his knee, and began to play with me — a very amiable act, but returned with the ingratitude of a peevish brat by a smart slap on the face. (2) When I was only five years old. Goldsmith took me on his knee one evening, while he was drinking coffee with my father, and began to play with me, which amiable act I returned with the ingratitude of a peevish brat by giving him a smart slap on the face. (3) When I was only five years old. Goldsmith, kindly taking me on his knee one evening as he was drinking coffee with my father, began to play with me; and this amiable act I returned with the ingratitude of a peevish brat by giving him a smart slap on the face. (4) I was only five years old, when Goldsmith took me on his knee one evening, while he was drinking coffee with my father, and began to play with me. This amiable act I [or. This was an amiable act, but I] returned [it] witli the ingratitude of a peevish child by giving him a smart slap on the face. An important source of pleasure in expression, as in dress, music, and scenery, is variety. A sentence may be varied — (1) By changing an active verb into its passive form, or vice versa; as, ‘ A struck B ’ = ‘ B was struck by A.’ (2) By changing a participial noun into a root-in.finitive, or vice versa; as, ‘ I like Avalking ’ = ‘ I like to walk.’ (3) By changing one kind of phrase into another; as, ‘very neatly’ = ‘with groat neatness.’ (4) By changing the verb into the corresponding noun; as, ‘ Columbus who discovered America ’ = ‘ Columbus, the discoverer of America.’ THE SEHTEHCE — SYNTHESIS AND VAEIETY. 203 (5) By contracting clauses into words and phrases : ‘ the man who catches rats’ == ‘the rat catcher,’ ‘When Caesar, had conquered Gaul, he sailed tor Britain ’ = ‘ Caesar having conquered Gaul, sailed for Britain.’ ‘Milton, who was a great epic poet, died in 1674’= ‘Milton, the great epic poet, died in 1674.’ ‘If it does not rain this week the crops will be light ’ = ‘ Without rain this week the crops will be light.’ (6) By expanding words and phrases into clauses : ‘ They have nothing to wear ’ = ‘ They have nothing that they can wear.’ ‘ Writing carefully, you will learn to write well ’ = ‘ If you write carefully, you will learn to write well.’ ‘Troy taken by the Greeks, ^neas came into Italy’ = Alter Troy had been taken by the Greeks, ^neas came into Italy.’ (7) By changing from the declarative to the exclamative or the interrogative form, or vice versa: ‘ The child sleeps very quietly ’ = ‘ How quietly the child sleeps ! ’ ‘ The hardest task in the world is to think ’ = ‘ Is it not the hardest task in the world to think ? ’ (8) By changing from the usual to the inverted order, and vice versa: ‘ The breath of morn is sweet ’ = ‘ Sweet is the breath of morn.’ ‘In a poor and narrow street dwelt a little sickly orphan ’ = ‘ A little sickly orphan dwelt in a poor and narrow street.’ (9) By changing from the direct form to the indirect, and vice versa: Bion said, ‘Know thyself’ = ‘Bion said that we should know ourselves.’ ‘A told B not to trouble him- self’ = ‘ A said to B, “ Do not trouble yourself,” ’ (10) By the substitution of Synonyms, or words having nearly or exactly the same meaning: ‘At Oxford, Johnson lived [dwelt] about three years. He was indigent [poor] even to raggedness ; and his look [appearance] provoked [excited] a mirth and a compassion [pity] which were equally insufferable [intolerable] to his haughty temper [spirit].’ 204 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES. 1. Resolve the following story into detached elements: It was New Year’s Eve, and a cold, snowy evening. A poor little girl walked along the street, numb with cold. She carried in her hand a basketful of matches. These she had been trying all day to sell, but in vain; no one had bought a single box. The snow fell fast upon her pretty yellow hair and her bare neck, but she did not mind that. She looked sadly at the bright lights which shone from every window as she passed along. She could smell the nice roast goose, and she longed to taste it. Wearied and faint, she laid herself down in a corner of the street, and drew her little legs under her to keep herself warm. She could not go home, for her father would scold her for not having sold any matches. Even if she were there, she would still be cold, for the house was but poorly furnished, and the wind whistled through many a chink in the roof and walls. She thought she would try and warm her cold fingers by lighting one of the matches. She drew one out, struck it against the wall, and presently a bright clear fiame streamed from it, as from a lighted candle. The little girl looked at the flame, and she saw before her a fine supper tidily laid out, and a pretty iron stove with a nice fire in it ! She stretched out her feet to warm them, when lo ! the match went out. In a moment the feast and the fire vanished. There she sat in the cold night, with the burnt match in her hand. 2. Make a simple sentence out of each of the following groups: (1) The sun shines. The sun warms the earth. (2) Peter had made the pilgrimage. Peter was commonly called the Hermit. Peter was a native of Amiens. The pilgrimage was to Jerusalem. (3) Tyndale printed the first edition of the New Testament in English. THE SEHTEHOE — SYNTHESIS AND VAKIETY. 205 Tyndale was an accomplished linguist. He had conceived the design of translating the Scriptures. The translation was printed at Antwerp. The date was the year 1526. (3) Margaret fled. She was the consort of Henry the Sixth. She fled after a defeat in one of the wars. The wars were between the houses of York and Lancaster. She fled with her son. She fled into a forest. (4) The Nile rises in a great lake. It runs north. Its source is two thousand miles from Alexandria. It receives two branches only. It runs through an alluvial valley. Its course through the valley is 1,500 miles. It flows into the Mediterranean. (5) There was a pious Brahmin. He made a vow. He vowed that he would sacrifice a sheep. He would do this on a certain day. On the appointed morning he went forth. He went to buy one. (6) The child was delicate. She was pale. She was prematurely wise. She was complaining on a hot morning. Her complaint was about the poor dew-drops. The dew-drops had been too hastily snatched away. They were not allowed to glitter on the flowers. There were other happier dew-drops. Some dew-drops live the whole night through. They sparkle in the moonlight. They sparkle through the morning. They sparkle till noonday. 206 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 3. Weave (5) and (6), and each of the following, into complex sentences : (1) The Polar bear will live on vegetable diet. This was proved in the case of two. They lived and thrived for years in the French menageries. They were not allowed to touch animal food. (2) Portia was the daughter of Cato. Her husband had been conquered and slain at Philippi. She heard of it. She called for a sword. She wished to kill herself. (3) The great temple of the Arabs was the Caaba. The Caaba was in Mecca. In the walls of it was fixed a black stone. Tradition said this stone was a petrified angel. It was once pure white. It was soon blackened by the kisses of sinners. (4) Alfred was reduced to extremity by the Danes. The Danes were spreading devastation all over England. He was obliged to relinquish the ensigns of his dignity. He was obliged to dismiss his servants. He was obliged to flee. He fled in the meanest disguise. ^ He fled from the pursuit and fury of his enemies. 4. Combine the following into compound sentences : (1) Bunyan struck at the hobgoblins. He pushed them from him. They were ever at his side. (2) Gin drinking is a great vice in England. Wretchedness is a greater vice. Dirt is a greater vice. (3) Two friends promised to visit me. One of them was on his way. It rained very heavily. He turned back. (4) There was a wild pigeon. She had built her nest on a high tree. THE SEI^TENCE — SYNTHESIS AND VAEIETY.. 207 There she hatched her eggs. A fox always came. He came as soon as her young ones were fledged. He threatened that he would climb up. He threatened that he would devour her. Also her young. Unless she gave him the latter of her own accord. 5. Weave the following facts into well arranged sentences: (1) The fox thirsty ; comes to a well ; while drinking falls in ; drinks his fill ; unable to get out. A goat comes to the mouth ; looks down ; asks if the water is good ; the fox entices the goat to come down ; the goat leaps into the well, and drinks ; can not leap up again ; the fox asks him to set his fore-feet against the wall ; gets up on his horns, and springs out of the well ; declines to help the goat to get out ; taunts him with having more beard than brains. (2) In Altai Mountains, bears are numerous; a hunter and another man go in quest of one; come upon fresh tracks ; a loud growl ; a bear springs from a thicket thirty-five paces off ; the hunter fires ; the bear, wounded, makes a charge; strikes down the hunter; the other man runs off ; reports the encounter. A party from the gold mine sets out next morning; the grass shows that the man had been dragged away ; they follow the track ; find the man, mangled and insensible, but living; he is carried with care to the hospital at the mines ; carefully tended ; remains unconscious for two months; on getting better asks about the bear; after a while he is missed and not to be found ; the children had seen him go away with an axe and a rifle; in about a week he returns with the skin of a huge black bear; he had killed the bear. (3) A great irregidar rock; connected with Spain by a low isthmus of sand ; on the other three sides the sea. Three miles long; half a mile broad; rises to 1,430 feet; seen from a distance, bold and outstanding, but harmless; when examined, seen to be dangerous; tunnels inside 208 LESSOI^S lif ENGLISH GEAMMAK. the rock, with holes out here and there for guns; at corners, an excavated hall, with guns all around; the rock, where not perpendicular, begirt by a wall and moat; the ground, at its base, undermined; fifty mil- lions spent defending it; kept at a cost of £200,000 a year. The town on the western slope; mostly yellow barracks ; streets narrow and crooked ; population 15,000 ; mixed multitude — soldiers, Spanish ladies. Barbary ^ews. Highlanders, Moors, Turks, Spanish peasants, English governesses, and children ; donkeys with barrels of rain water, mules, Spanish horses ; medley of sounds — asses, mules, wagons, cars, bag-pipes, bugles, bands, bells, sentinels, jangling of bargain-makers. (4) There is a large nerve. It runs from the skull through the back-bone. It is called the spinal marrow. Erom every part of it nerves branch off in every direction again and again. They cover the body like fine net-work. (5) The mischievous little boy sat upon my knees. It was on Christmas morning. He was holding fast his little stockings. They were stuffed as full as full can be. He was listening attentively to me. His face was demure. It was mild. I then told him something. It was that old Santa Claus does not love naughty children. Santa Claus fills stockings with Christmas presents. (6) A great tree used to shelter the quiet little Dutch inn of yore. Instead of this, there now was reared a pole. The pole was tall and naked. It had something on the top that looked like a red nightcap. A flag was flutter- ing from it. On the flag was a singular assemblage of stars and stripes. All this was strange and incompre- hensible. Eemembered the tavern sign. Recognized on this the face of King George. Even this was singularly changed. Red coat changed for one of blue and buff. Sword in the hand instead of a sceptre. Head decorated with a cocked hat. Underneath was painted ‘General Washington.’ A crowd of folks about the door. This was usual. But none that Rip knew. THE SENTENCE — SYNTHESIS AND VAEIETY. 309 6. Expand these simple sentences into complex ones : (1) His guilt or innocence is still uncertain. (2) Wealthy men should give liberally. (3) With patience he might have succeeded. (4) He believed his health to be improving. (5) The manner of his escape is a mystery. (6) He came upon me unawares. (7) Fish, having no lungs, have no voice. 7. Contract the following sentences into simple ones: (1) They will call before they leave the city. (2) She stoops that she may conquer. (3) He grew rich, because he attended to his business. (4) My vengeance is awake, and she is a falcon that sleepeth not till she has been gorged. (5) Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. (6) It is generally believed that the soul is immortal. (7) The crime was great and the punishment should be severe. (8) The premises were admitted, and the conclusion followed. (9) The infantry advanced, but the cavalry remained in the rear. (10) A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music. 8. Change from the declarative to the interrogative or the exclama- tive, and note the effect : (1) The Judge of all the earth will do right. (2) They lash us with their tongues. (3) You can not put your hand in the fire without being burned. (4) The scenes of my childhood are dear to my heart. (5) The waves care nothing for the name of king. (6) The moonlight sleeps very sweetly on this bank. (7) The stars are innumerable. (8) Sleep is very wonderful. 9. Change from the usual to the inverted order, and explain the effect : • (1) The groves are sweet. (2) The fields are verdant. 210 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GliAMMAK. (3) The powerful king of day comes yonder. (4) The sleep of the dead is deep. (5) No positive misery can be while hope remains. (6) A straw will furnish the occasion when people are detei mined to quarrel. (7) I knew very well that he could do it. (8) Nothing is mean or debasing in rural occupations. (9) He frowned ever and anon. (10) The messenger divine comes with a slow and noiseless footstep. 10. Change to the usual order: (1) All in a moment through the gloom were seen Ten thousand banners rise into the air With orient colors waving. (2) Into this wild abyss the wary Fiend Stood on the brink of Hell and looked awhile, Pondering his voyage. (3) Among the hills of Athol he was born, Where, on a small hereditary farm. An unproductive slip of rugged ground. His parents, with their numerous offspring, dwelt. (4) Once in that great town below us, In a poor and narrow street. Dwelt a little sickly orphan ; Gentle aid, or pity sweet. Never in life’s rugged pathway Guided his poor tottering feet. (5) Hope, like the glimmering taper’s light. Adorns and cheers the way ; And still as darker grows the night. Emits a brighter ray. (6) When woods in early green were dressed. And from the chambers of the west. The warmer breezes, traveling out. Breathed the new scent of flowers about. My truant steps from home would stray, Upon its grassy side to play. THE SEHTEHCE — SYNTHESIS AND VAKIETY. 211 (7) But northward far, with purer blaze, On Ochil mountains fall the rays. And as each heathy top they kissed It gleamed a purple amethyst. Yonder the shores of Fife you saw; Here Preston-bay and Berwick Law ; And broad between them rolled The gallant Frith the eye might note, Whose islands on its bosom float Like emeralds chased in gold. (8) Then the companions of his fall, o’erwhelmed With floods and whirlwinds of tempestuous Are, He soon discerns ; and weltering by his side. One next himself in power, and next in crime. Long after known in Palestine and named Beelzebub. 11. Change the order in as many ways as possible without changing the construction: (1) Conscience remonstrates while we are doing wrong. (2) So far as I can Judge, the book is well written. (3) Between passion and lying there is little difference. (4) 1 had long before repented my roving course of life, but I could not free my mind from the love of travel. (5) I found the following fragment in looking over the papers of an acquaintance. (6) Pitt was in the army for a few months in time of peace. (7) He was undoubtedly a great man. (8) Two or three faults of style occur to me in looking over some former compositions. (9) In the way of writing, no great thing was ever, or will ever be, done with ease. 12. Change from the direct. to the indirect form: As a wolf was lapping at the head brook, he spied a stray lamb paddling, at some distance down the stream. Having made up his mind to seize her, he bethought himself how he might Justify his violence. ‘Villain!’ said he, running up to her. 212 LESSOJSrS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAR. ‘how dare you muddy the water that I am drinking?’ ‘Indeed,’ said the lamb, humbly, ‘I do not see howl can disturb the water, since it runs from you to me, not from me to you.’ ‘ Be that as it may,’ replied the wolf, ‘ it was but a year ago that you called me many ill names.’ ‘ 0, sir ! ’ said the lamb, trembling, ‘a year ago I was not born.’ ‘Well,’ replied the wolf, ‘ if it was not you, it was your father, and that is all the same; but it is no use trying to argue me out of my supper ’ ; and without another word he fell upon the poor helpless lamb and tore her to pieces. 13. Change from the indirect to the direct: When Pyrrhus had shown the utmost fondness for his expedi- tion against the Komans, Cyneas, his chief minister, asked him what he proposed to himself by the war. Pyrrhus said that he meant to conquer the Komans and reduce all Italy to his obedience. Cyneas asked what then. Pyrrhus said that he would pass over into Sicily and that then all the Sicilians must be their subjects. Cyneas asked what his Majesty intended next. The king replied that he meant to conquer Carthage and make himself master of all Africa. Then the minister asked what was to be the end of all his expeditions ; and the king said that for the rest of their lives they would sit down to good wine. Cyneas then asked if they could have better than they then had before them, or if they had not already as much as they could drink. 14. Weave the following facts into sentences of good length, and represent the lion and mouse as engaged in dialogue: The lion sleeping in a forest; mouse running over his nose awakes him; the lion lifts his mighty paw to kill the mouse; the mouse pleads for its life ; the lion spares it ; the mouse thanks the lion, and hopes to be of use to him some day ; the lion smiles at the idea. Some time after the lion, while roaming in the forest, is caught in a net ; can not get out ; his roar tills the forest; the mouse comes to his assistance; gnaws through the cords of the net; sets the lion free; thanks the mouse, and is glad that he had spared its life. Moral, THE SENTENCE — SYNTHESIS AND VAEIETY. 213 15. Without changing the sense, vary the form by contraction, expansion, transposition, substitution of synonyms, etc. : A hare, very proud of her quickness in rimrring, once ran a race with a tortoise. In a moment the hare got before her rival, who, with his heavy shell on his back, could but move at a very slow pace. ‘Ha! ha!’ laughed the hare, as she stopped hall way to glance back at the tortoise crawling on far behind ; ‘ if you don’t ply your short legs a little faster, my friend. I’ll be half over the country before you reach the end of the field.’ The tortoise answered not, but toiled on. ‘Really,’ said the saucy hare, ‘ if I were to hop on three legs, I should get on much faster than you do! I think that I’ll take a short nap. If you were but a yard from the goal, I should overtake you with a few bounds.’ So the hare lay down on the grass, and soon fell fast asleep. She heard not the little feet of the tortoise, as he came creeping up to the place ; she saw him not as he went steadily on, never stop- ping to look behind him. Presently the hare awoke, and sprang up, ready to dart on like the wind. ‘ Where is the tortoise ? ’ cried she. ‘ Here, ’ answered a voice from the end of the field ; ‘ slow and steady has won the race.’ CHAPTEE XXXI. THE SENTENCE — CAPITALIZATION. One of tlie lielps to clear expression is the nse of differ- ently sized letters. Thus, ^ lord ^ in its general sense denotes men of antliority and power, and, when so used, it is begnn with a small letter; in its jDarticnlar application, to God or a person, as Lord Bacon, ^ it is begnn with a larger letter, called a capital. ^ Similarly, if we wish to combine ^ sea and dead ’ — the one a common name and the other a common attribute — and to designate by the combination a single object, this peculiar nse is rendered visible by initial capitals: ‘^Dead Sea.'’ Thon Ms capital- ized below to show its reference to the Deity: 0 Thou whose love can ne’er forget its offspring man ! The presence of the antecedent, however, renders such capitalization quite unnecessary, since the reference is per- fectly clear without it: These are thy glorious works, Parent of Good, Almighty ! thine this universal frame. Thus wondrous fair: thyself \xoyf wondrous then! We write Mhe constitution of the world," but Mhe Con- stitution of the United States"; Ghe reformation of char- acter," but Mdie Reformation of Luther"; M revolution in politics," but Mhe Revolution of 1776"; democratic 1 Latin caput, head. Large letters are so named because they are usually placed at the heads of words or sentences. 214 THE SENTENCE — CAPITALIZATION. 215 principles/ but ‘^tlie principles of the Democratic party.'’ The foundation of the difference iS;, that the use of a ivord as a iwoinr name requires an initial cajntal. It is for this reason that the principal words in the titles of books, which are really "names of individual objects, are capi- talized. If the writer attaches peculiar weight to a word, he may express the fact to the reader’s eye by capitalizing either all the letters or the initial one. Thus, when a word is being defined, it is not unusual to commence it with a capital. Who has not observed how customary it is, in advertisements, to begin with capitals the names of the leading objects to which it is desired to draw attention? Tliough not for the sake of . emphasis, yet still to assist the reader’s understanding, the beginnings of sentences, while marked by GQi'tom q^oints or stoqjs, are also capitalized; and when one sentence is contained in another as a quota- tion, without change of form or introductory connective, the initial capital is retained: (1) Remember the maxim, ‘ Honesty is the best policy.’ (2) Remember that ‘honesty is the best policy.’ These illustrations suggest that every rule of capitaliza- tion derives its value from this principle, — that the design of capitals is to exhibit to the eye the idea; consequently, that their different uses are mainly reducible to two, — the indication of proper names, and the indication of emphasis. It follows, moreover, from the essential office of capi- tals— to bring out the meaning of a sentence — that something must be allowed to taste. Within reasonable limits, the usage of the same or of different writers may properly vary, as in the following: 216 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The cane-brakes of the state of Louisiana. — Bancroft. The union of the States. — Everett. Used in Louisiana and some neighboring states. — Worcester. The States of Italy. — Macaulay. In the service of a single state. — Ibid. For the Bar or the pulpit. — Mandeville. He is a member of the bar. — Worcester. The general practice is to begin with capitals: 1 . Every sentence. 2. Every line of poetry. 3. Every direct quotation — one expressing a thought, and not introduced by a conjunction: {Direct.) The poet says, ‘ Learn to labor and to wait.’ {Indirect.) Tlie poet says that we must ‘ learn to labor and to wait.’ {Direct.) His question is ‘Why do you not go?’ {Indirect.) He desires to know why you do not go. 4. Statements enumerated in a formal manner: To establish the similarity of two polygons, it must be proved : (1) That they are mutually equiangular. (2) That their corresponding sides are proportional. 5. Illustrative examples (quotations, or assumed to he such), if sentences: (1) The distinction is that yea and nay are answers to ques- tions framed in the affirmative; as, ‘Will he go? (2) When from sudden emotion we give utterance to some abrupt, inverted, or elliptical expression, we are said to use an exclamation; as, ‘bravo,’ ‘dreadful,’ ‘the fellow.’ 6. Proper names, hence also names of months and da}s, leading words in titles of books and essays, and all appellations of the Deity. THE SEKTEHCE — CAPITALIZATION. 217 7. Proper adjectives, — adjectives derived from proper nouns. Not infrequently words so derived have lost their primary reference, like worn and faded coins. Such are usually written with small initials; as, ^damask,’ from Damascus, and ‘’stentorian,^ meaning ‘'loud,^ from Stentor, a fabulous person noted for the strength of his lungs. 8. Names of things vividly personified, when indi- vidual; Thoii Sun, said I, fair light! And thou, enlightened Earth, so fresh and gay! Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell. Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here? 9. Titles of office, honor, or respect, when used in con- nection with the proper name or (as a rule) in direct address. 10. Names of the cardinal points north, ^ south,’ etc.), when these denote a district or a people, but not when expressing mere direction. ^ 11. Finally, the pronoun I and the interjection 0 should be capitals. Both 0 and oh express emotion, but the former is cus- tomarily used before vocatives: 0 Fortune, Fortune! all men call thee fickle. If the world be worth thy winning, Think, oh! think, it worth enjoying. EXERCISES. Make the necessary corrections, giving the reasons : (1) We had much pleasure. (2) My name is pleasure. (3) The entrance into the garden of hope was by two gates; 218 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GEAMMAE. one of which was kept by reason, and the other by fancy. (4) The general assembly meets on the first monday in January. (5) Let not the snares of the world, Oh my Son, take away your heart from good. (6) Three cheers were given for the ‘champion of the south.’ (7) The bible says, ‘children, obey your parents.’ (8) She is gone to him that comforteth as a father comforteth. (9) The president lives in the white house. (10) These birds go South in Winter, but return in Spring or Summer. (11) At length the toleration act was sent down to the commons. (12) He flattered himself that the tcries might be induced to make some concessions to the dissenters, on condition that the whigs would be lenient to the Jacobites. (13) See art’s fair Empire o’er oiir shores advance. (14) Burke’s ‘philosophical inquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful,’ and allison’s ‘essays on the nature and i^rinciples of taste,’ are works of permanent value. (15) The reign of queen Anne is generally ad- mitted to have been the augustau age of English literature. (16) The norman conquest was the means of introducing chivalry and the feudal system into England. (17) Tlie wars of the roses desolated britain between the years 1455 and 1485. (18) The work is admirably adapted to the use of schools. CHAPTER XXXII. THE SENTENCE — PUNCTUATION. Sentences are made clear cliiefly by a proper arrange- ment of words; but sometimes, in spoken language, by proper pauses, and in written language by proper punctua- tions. Marks used for this purpose are called, from their effect, stops; and from their appearance, ^^oints, the Latin for which Thus — 1. The troops landed and killed a hundred Indians. Here Indians ^ has the appearance of being the common object of the two verbs. To restrict it to the second, a point must be inserted after the first: The troops landed, and killed a hundred Indians. It would be still better, however, to re-cast the sentence, changing the first member to ^The troops, landing, killed,^ etc., or ^ After the troops had landed.’ 2. A tree consists of four parts first leaA^es second branches third trunk fourth roots. Here the least degree of separation is after the ordinals, which have been introduced to make the enumeration more deliberate or formal; and hence these are cut off by com- mas, to show that they are not modifiers. The next higher degree is between the particulars enumerated; hence these require semi-colons. The highest is after ^parts,^and must therefore be distinguished by a colon: 219 220 LESSO]srs m English gbammae. A tree consists of four parts : first, leaves ; second, branches ; third, trunk; fourth, roots. 3. Said Keats, ‘ I feel the daisies growing over me.’ Tlie grammatical connection between the object and the verb is closer when the sentence assumes the form: ‘Keats said that he felt the daisies growing over him.’ A formal reference to the quotation increases the separation: These are the words of the dying Keats : ‘ I feel the daisies growing over me.’ In the first form, the quotation is objective and direct; in the second it is objective and indirect ; and in the third it is nominative by apjiosition. Make the appositive inter- mediate between subject and verb, and the pnnctnation will vary accordingly: These words, ‘I feel the daisies growing over me,’ were spoken by the dying Keats. Prom these illustrations we learn that the purpose of pnnctnation is to indicate to the eye the construction of the sentence; also, that pnnctnation is influenced by the sense, by position, and by the points required elsewhere. PERIOD. Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative sentence; (2) an abbreviation; (3) headings and sub-head- ings, significant alone; (4) Eoman letters used as numerals. The practice of (4), however, is losing favor. It is more tasteful and equally clear to omit the period; as, ^Edward IV was a vigorous ruler.-’ INTERROGATION POINT. This point is used after comjilete questions, whether asked by the writer or directly quoted (a), {b) ; sometimes THE SEHTEHCE — PUHCTUATIOJST. 221 withm curves^ to express doubt witliout formal denial (c); after elliptical questions having a common dependence (d) : (a) What can I do for you? (&) He asked, ‘ Why do you weep ? ’ (c) He is the meanest (?) of mankind. (d) How shall a man obtain the kingdom of God? by impiety? by murder? by falsehood ? by theft? EXCLAMATION POINT. This point is used after sentences and parts of sentences that are sufficiently emotional (rq c); commonly after interjections (cZ, e,/); sometimes to attract attention (y); within curves, to denote irony or contempt (/i) : (a) How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how com- plicate, how wonderful is man! (5) Here I stand for impeachment or trial! I dare accusation! (c) Those evening bells ! those evening bells ! How many a tale their music tells ! (d) Yeho! yeho! through lanes, groves, and villages. (e) Ah ! there’s a deathless name. (/) Ere I was old ? Ah, woeful ‘ ere ’ ! ([/) Selling off below cost ! ! (h) This scholar and statesman (!) would have us think that the law should be repealed. COLON. A colon is put between the great divisions of a com- pound sentence, when minor divisions are marked by the semi-colon (a) ; before an enumeration of particulars when the particulars themselves are separated by semi-colons (d); before a direct quotation formally introduced (oq but note d ) ; (a) There seems to have been an Indian path ; for this was the ordinary route of the Mohawk and Oneida war-parties : 228 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GKAMMAK. (c) He asked me, ‘ Why do you weep ? ’ Why did you not say at once, ‘ I can not go ’? The interrogation point belongs, in the latter, to the en- tire sentence; in the former, only to the objective clause. On the ground of reason and taste, we have followed the English lead in preferring single to double points for primary quotation. i The latter (especially if frequent) give to the page a ragged and uncouth appearance; the first, as they are simpler, are less offensive; and as they attract less attention, answer better the purposes of thought. It should be remembered, also, that quotation marks are but one of several devices for distinguishing words that are quoted. Hence single terms, titles of books and periodicals, may be expressed in italic or capitals. UNDERSCORE. The underscore is used to distinguish foreign words (a); usually names of newspapers, of magazines, and (less frequently) of books (d); often for emphasis (c), — one underscore denoting what is emphatic, italics: two, what is more emphatic, small capitals; three, what is very emphatic, CAPITALS: (a) His heroes are always marked by an air distingue; his vile men are sure to be biases ... he does not simply enjoy his rest, he luxuriates in the dolce far niente and won- ders when we will manage to begin his magnum opus ! {b) The article appeared in the Atlantic Monthly. Have you read Hawthorne’s Marble Faunf (c) Sweep away utterly all frothiness and falsehood from your heart ; struggle unweariedly to acquire what is possible ^In books aud other printed work, it is becoming customary to omit the quotation marks, as unnecessary, when an extract is given in a separate paragraph together with the author’s name, THE SEHTEHCE — PUHCTUATIOH. 229 for every God-created man, a free, open, humble soul; spealc not at all in any wise, till you have someivhat to speah; care not for the reward of your speaking, but simply, and with undivided mind, for the trutli of your speaking ! APOSTROPHE. The apostrophe is used to denote the omission of a letter or of letters («); the omission of a figure or of figures (Z>); to distinguish the possessive case (c); to form certain plurals {d) : (a) ’Tis [it is] curious that we believe only as deep as we live. What o'clock is it? Thou ’It yet survive the storm. (b) The spirit of '76 animated them. (c) King's [= cyning-es\. {d) Cancel your x's and make your t's better. HYPHEN. The hyphen is used to divide words into their con- stituent parts, either when it is desired to exhibit the parts, as ‘^re-ject-ed,^ or when it is necessary to write a portion on the next line: Pyrrhus you tempt a danger high When you would steal from any li- Oness her cubs. The following rules, which cover most cases of such di- vision, may he of service: (1) Join consonants to the vowels whose sounds they modify; as, ‘ epi-dem-ic,’ ‘ an-i-mos-i-ty.’ (2) Prefixes and suffixes form distinct syllables, when possible without misrepresenting the pronunciation; as, ‘form- er,’ ‘re-print,’ ‘ dis-grace-ful.’ (3) In the case of compounds, the divisions fall between the constituents; as, ‘horse-man,’ ‘more-over.’ 230 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. EXERCISES. 1. Explain the punctuation: (1) Never man spake like this man. (2) Homer was the greater genius ; Yirgil, the better artist. (3) There are threee modes, — the indicative, the potential, and the imperative. (3) There are three modes ; the indicative, the potential, and the imperative. (5) There are three modes; first, the indicative; second, the potential ; and third, the imperative. (6) What’s in a name? (7) Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), Virtue alone is happiness below. (8) Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know) : Virtue alone is happiness below. (9) Our task done, we went home. (10) We went home when our task was done. (11) Plato, thou reasonest well. (12) He was a good poet, but a bad man. (13) The poet Longfellow was beloved by children. (14) The streams of small pleasures fill the lake of happiness. (15) He who stands on etiquette merely, shows his own little- ness. (16) The old man said, ‘All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.’ (17) These were the old man’s words: ‘All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.’ (18) What, confine me? (19) What! confine me? (20) Honor, wealth, duty, safety, are the leading motives of man. (21) Reputation, virtue, and happiness depend greatly on the choice of companions. (22) I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the last. (23) It is mind, after all, that does the work of the world. THE SEHTEHCE — PUHCTUATIOH. (24) I will explain the What are you laughing at? (25) We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own failings, (26) Mrs. L was born in 18 — . (27) Too many studies distracts [distract] the mind. (28) A boon from thee, Health, I crave. (29) Diamonds and rubies, pearls and emeralds, dazzled the eye. (30) Proverbs are short, pithy, homely sayings that embody the wisdom and experience of the million. (31) Hungary, as well as Spain, is noted for its wines. 2. Distinguish* between — (1) ‘ I, Paul, have written it ’ ; ‘ I Paul have written it.’ (2) ‘ You did not see him, then? ’ ‘ You did not see him then ? ’ (3) ‘ 0 Shame ! where is thy blush ? ’ ‘ Oh, shame ! where is thy blush ? ’ (4) ‘Why, did you not come to us in the beginning of the night ? ’ ‘Why did you not come to us in the beginning of the night?’ (5) ‘ The eye, that sees all things, sees not itself ’ ; ‘The eye that sees all things, sees not itself.’ 61 ‘ Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die ’ ; ‘Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers which bloom and die.’ (7) ‘ The earth is fllled with labors, the works, of the dead ’ ; ‘ The earth is fllled with labors, the works of the dead.’ (8) ‘ His mind was profoundly thoughtful, and vigorous ’ ; ‘His mind was profoundly thoughtful and vigorous.’ (9) ‘ ’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too ’ ; ‘ ’Twas certain he could write and cipher too.’ (10) ‘Glass-house’ and ‘glass house’; ‘New-York Directory’ and ‘ New York Directory ’ ; ‘ lady’s Anger ’ and ‘ lady’s- 232 LESSOKS IN' EITGLISH GEAMMAR. finger’; ‘recreate’ and ‘re-create’; ‘reform’ and ‘re- form ’ ; ‘ many-colored birds ’ and ‘ many colored birds ’ ; ‘a horse racing’ and ‘a horse-racing’; ‘four-footed animals’ and ‘four footed animals’; ‘deep-tangled wildwood’ and ‘deep tangled wild wood’; ‘touch me not’ and ‘touch-me-not.’ 3. Divide into syllables : Never, oblivious, heretic, transacted, termination, nevertheless, highwayman, accent, similarity, consolidate, master, signifi- cant, official, pretty, sufficiently. 4. Compose sentences embodying correctly the following abbre- viations : Mo. = Missouri. lb. = libra (pound). Mts. = mountains. do. = ditto (the same). Mr. =r mister. e. g. = exempli gratia Mrs. = mistress. (for sake of example). No. = numero etc. = et cetera (number). (and the rest). Messi's. = messieurs i. e. = id est (gentlemen). (that is). Supt. 3= superintendent. p. = page. A. D. = anno Domini. pp. = pages. A. B. — artium baccalaureus vs. = versus (against). (bachelor of arts). viz. = videlicit (namely). A. M. = artium magister hhd. = hogshead. (master of arts). M. D. = medicine doctor LL.D. = legum doctor (doctor of medicine). (doctor of laws). D. D. = divinitatis doctor Ph. D. = philosophic doctor (doctor of divinity). doctor of philosophy). M. C. = member of Congress. B. C. = before Christ. M. P. = member of Parliament. C. 0. D. =: collect on delivery. 5. Punctuate and capitalize, giving reasons: if we had but a king said some noisy frogs in a pond we should be peaceful and orderly as it is every one may do as he pleases and say what he likes and there is as much uproar in THE SENTENCE — PUNCTUATION. 233 our pond as if we were a set of noisy ducks instead of being quiet respectable frogs a king would soon set us to rights o that Jupiter would give us a king so they held an assembly and offered up a prayer to Jupiter that he would give them a king scarcely were the words of their prayer out of their mouths . when down came a big black monster from the sky splashing the water up like a fountain away swam the frogs in a fright Jupiter should not have sent us such a terrible monster cried they why could he not send us a decent quiet king who might keep us in order without frightening us out of our wits as for this tyrant if he terrifies us thus at his first coming what will he do when he is used to oppressing us but the big black monster took no notice of their terror there he lay silent and sullen and would not so much as move a limb astonished at his silence the frogs after their first fright began to wish that their new king would say or do some- thing so that at least they might be relieved from their suspense so they took out of prison a frog that had com- mitted murder and promised him free pardon if he would swim within three frogs leaps of the king shivering with terror the poor frog swam towards the king scarcely daring to hope that he might escape and expecting every moment that the huge monster would dart upon him with open Jaws and swallow him up closer and closer he swam still the king floated silent motionless taking courage from this the frog thought he would awake his majesty by croaking he croaked but the king made no reply he swam closer and still closer and at last his suspicions being aroused he extended one of his legs and stroked the monster’s face with it it was as he had suspected the king was no king nothing but a big black log. immediately the whole tribe of frogs who had been watching from a distance lifted up their voices and began to abuse Jupiter if he had wished to insult us cried they he could not have treated us more contemptuously we should not have minded a strong and somewhat flerce king even if he had swallowed up a few of us now and then any thing would be 234 LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. better than this do nothing this king log why may not we have a king as the birds and the beasts have Jupiter should not have treated us thus he might at least have sent us no king instead of thus insulting us we will pray to him no more until he sends us a real king so the frogs shut up all their temples and for a whole day would say no more prayers to Jupiter but at the end of the day there suddenly hopped down into the pond a monstrous stork to be their king he began by gobbling up a dozen of the noisiest frogs and ordered that no frog should croak in any part of the pond while he was asleep this pleased the rest who said now we shall have order it is worth while having a strong king that we may have peace and quiet but when they came swimming round him next morning to pay their respects and to ask him to Judge their disputes he would not hear them but ate them up by scores quiet and noisy alike choosing the fattest so now the frogs saw they had made a mistake and they said if we were once rid of king stork we would not find fault with king log and indeed we could be content to have no king at all n^DEX. A- Absolute, Nominative, 154. Adjective, defined, 19; as noun, 28 ; species of, 56 ; inflection of, 96; synopsis of, 127; govern- ment of, 180. Adverb, defined, 19; as noun, 28; as adjective, 29; as relative pro- noun, 47, 63 ; species of, 61 ; conjunctive, 63; inflection of, 101 ; synopsis of, 127; derivation of, 139. Alphabet, 8. Analysis, 165. Apostrophe, 239. Apposition, 58, 145, 178. Article, definite, 56, 91; indefin- ite, 57. As, relative force of, 47 ; in com- parison, 72. Attribute, 145. Auxiliary, nature and species of, 104. B Be, inflectional forms of, 117. Brackets, 227. But, as relative, 47. o Can, 118, 183. Capitalization, principles of, 214. Case, 84, 86, 176. 177. Clause, 36. Climax, 195. Colon, 12, 21. Comma, 223. Comparison, 96. Complement, 51. Compounds, 132. Concord, 175. Conjugation, 110. Conjunction, defined, 21 ; as ad- jective, 29 ; species of, 69 ; deri- vation of, 139; synopsis of, 128. Copula, 52, 143. Curves, 226. D Dash, 225. Declarative sentence, 12, 159. Declension, 87. Derivatives, 132. Do, uses of, 118. B Either — or, 194. Emphatic style, 106. English language, origin of, 1 ; changes in, 3; composite char- acter of, 3. Ess, as gender sign, 80. Exclamative sentence, 12, 161. Exclamation point, 221. Expression, methods of varying, 201. Q Gender, 78. I Government, 175. I Grammar, aim of, 4. I H Rave, 118. Hybrids, 133. Hyphen, 239. I Imperative sentence, 12, 160. 235 236 Independent elements, 154. Indirect object, 85, 177. Infinitive, species of, 103; tense forms of, 107; participial and root subject of, 176. Inflection, meaning of, 77 ; ancient and modern, 86; as related to word-making, 131. Interjection, defined, 22; species of, 75; synopsis of, 128. Interrogation point, 220. Interrogative sentence, 12, 160. Iv Like, improper use of, 72. m; 3Iay, 118, 183. Mode, 107. Modifiers, nature of, 19; double duty of some, 149 ; classification of, 150; restrictive and paren- thetical, 151 ; position of, 193. 3List, 119, 183. M Nominative ease, 84. Noun, defined, 17; used as adjec- tive, 28; proper, 40; common, 40; collective, 41; verbal, 41; material, 42; abstract, 42; con- crete, 42 ; inflection of, 78 ; syn- opsis of, 125 ; derivation of, 138 ; adverbial, 148. Norman conquest, effect of, 2. Number, of noun, 81; in early English, 83; of verb, 105. Numerals, 57. o Object, direct and indirect, 85; adverbial, 148, 178. Only, 194. 0, oh, 217. Or and nor, confusion of, 185. Order, usual, 191; inverted, 192. Orthoepy, 9. Orthograpny, 9 Ought, 119. p Parenthetical elements, 155. Parsing, meaning and method of, 124; schemes for, 125; tabular, 129. Participle, species of, 103; com- pound forms of, 107. Parts of speech, induction of, 16; defined, 22; method of telling the, 23; transformation of, 28; principle of classification of, 30 ; phrase equivalents of, 34; clause equivalents of, 36. Past tense, confusion of with past participle, 182. Period, 220. Person, of nouns, 93 ; verbs, 105. Personal pronouns, descent of, 90. Personification, 79. Phrase, 34. Pleonasm, 154. Position, emphatic, 196. Possessive case, 85, 176. Possessive pronouns, descent of, 91. Potential mode, 107, 121. Predicate, defined, 12; may be what, 142; views respecting, 143; how modified, 147. Prefixes, 122. Preposition, defined, 20; species of, 66; complementary, 108, 145 ; synopsis of, 128 ; derivation of, 139; final, 196. Primitives, 132. Principal elements, 12, 142. Progressive verb-forms, 106. Pronoun, defined, 18; as adjective, 29; value of, 44; personal, 45; demonstrative, relative, interrog- ative, indefinite, 45; reflexive, 46 ; relative as connective, 47 ; compound rdative, 48; Anglo- Saxon inflection of personal, 90 ; synopsis of, 125 ; government of 178. Punctuation, science of, 219. INDEX. 237 Q Quotation, direct and indirect, marks of, 227. 3 Semicolon, 222. Sentence, defined, 11; classified, 12; principal elements of, 12, 142; subordinate elements of, 147; independent elements of, 154; classification of, 158; sim- ple, 158; complex, 158; com- pound, 159; declarative, 159; interrogative, 160; imperative, 160; excl amative, 161; analysis of, 165; government and con- cord in, 175; capitalization of, 214 ; punctuation of, 219. Shall and will, 183. Subject, 12; may be what, 142; how modified, 147; case of, 175. Subjunctive, a fading and useless distinction, 107. Subordination, kinds of, 149; de- grees of, 150. Substantive, defined, 36. Suffixes, 132. Synonyms, 203, (10). Syntax, principles of, 175. Synthesis, 201. T Tense, 105. Than, 72. T'hat, as relative, 179. The three first, 194. Transmutation, 28, 58. U Underscore, 228. V Verb, defined, 17; as adjective, 29; complete and incomplete, 51, 144; copulative, 52; transi- tive, 52; intransitive, 53; im- personal, 53; inflection of, 103; strong and weak, 110; principal parts of. 111 ; simple inflectional forms of, 116; composite, 117; synopsis of, 126; derivation of, 138; concord of, 181. Verbal, defined, 18; as adjective, 29 ; as noun, 41 ; species of, 103 ; synopsis of, 127. Verb-auxiliaries, origin of, 118; how combined, 119. Vocative, 84, 154. Voice, 108. Vowels, 5. W What, as relative, 48. Which, powers of, 48. Who, indefinite use of, 48. Will, 118. Words, formation of, 131. r--Fm I ty yi . ✓n _ _ jL DATE DUE SLIP 1 F. 255 PE 1111 HH8 1887 WELSH ALFRED H ALFRED HIX 185D-1889 LESSDHS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR 393D2822 CURR HIST ^000004828471^ PE 1111 W46 1887 Welshf Alfred HiXf 1850— 1889» Lessons in English grammar# HISTORICAL 0207324S CUPR